GANGS Essays (1641 words) - Crime, Criminology, Urban Decay

GANGS Essays (1641 words) - Crime, Criminology, Urban Decay GANGS OVERVIEW OF GANGS Originally the word gang had no negative connotation. In Old English, gang simply referred to a "number of people who went around together-a group." Today a gang can be defined in four basic ways: ? an organized group with a leader ? a unified group that usually remains together during peaceful times as well as times of conflict ? a group whose members show unity through clothing, language ? a group whose activities are criminal or threatening to the larger society. Gangs are one of the results of poverty, discrimination and urban deterioration. Some experts believe that young people, undereducated and without access to good jobs, become frustrated with their lives and join gangs as an alternative to boredom, hopelessness and devastating poverty. Studies have attempted to determine why gangs plague some communities but there has been no definitive answer. As a result, people working to solve gang problems have great difficulty. They find the situation overwhelming, and the violence continues. EARLY GANGS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY No groups completely fitting the above description of gangs existed in America until the early 1800s, but from the beginning of the European settlement in America there was gang-like activity, especially when class distinctions came into being. Gang members tended to be from the poorer classes and tended to be from the same race or ethnic background. They banded together for protection, recreation or financial gain. THE 20TH CENTURY GANGS In the early 1900s the U.S. economy worsened, the population grew at a rapid pace, and the gap between the rich and poor widened. All across the nation gangs appeared where poor, hopeless people lived. The dawning of the 20th century also brought with it a widespread use of firearms. 1920s By mid 1920s there were 1313 gangs in Chicago and more than 25,000 members. Gang warfare in Chicago was widespread and fighting took place along ethnic, cultural and racial lines. Some gangs had no noticeable cultural, ethnic or national ties and consisted mostly of whites. Chicano Gangs The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of Chicano (Mexican-American) gangs in Los Angeles. By the 1940s Chicano gangs established their place in Los Angeles-their zoot suits (a style of dress incorporating tapered pants, long wide- shoulder coats and broad-brimmed hats) had become a familiar sight. Fighting back against harassment of white residents and visiting soldiers during the so-called zoot suit riots in 1943 strengthened their cause. Post World War II After World War II gang membership: 1.became younger, 2.the nationality of the membership became largely non-white (though Italians, Irish and other white ethnic groups still made up a percentage), 3.drugs became a more publicized concern, 4.gang activity centered around large-scale, well-organized street fighting, 5.fire-arms were used more often, 6.the structure of organization became more rigid, 7.and society at large became concerned with gangs as a social problem and worked toward rehabilitation. Changes in Ethnic Populations The 1950s During the 1950s gang fighting rose to an all time high in cities like New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles and Cleveland. Gang members were usually in their teens. Codes of dress (black leather jackets were popular) and mannerisms were an important means of identification. Body language said a lot about the nature of the gang. When a gang decided to become a fighting, or "bopping" gang, its members immediately took on a different way of walking. A rhythmic gait, characterized by the forward movement of the head with each step. Terms for fighting were: bopping, rumbling, jitterbugging. Gang members used guns, knives, and homemade weapons. Most common drugs-alcohol, marijuana, heroin. New York gangs fought along racial lines-African-American, white, Puerto Rican. Usually they fought over girls or turf. Turf could be anything from a few blocks to an entire neighborhood. Gang members believed it was essential to protect the honor of their girlfr! iends. And in the late 1950, girl gangs, with strong ties to boy gangs, began to form. Revenge was required by an inflexible code of gang loyalty. It was from such incidents that gangs drew their sense of pride, of "being somebody." In order to combat the rise of violence, organizations like the New York City Youth Board sent social workers into the slums to form relationships with the gangs. In some

Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth

Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth By Mark Nichol The latest chapter in the depressing saga of Sarah Palin’s losing battle with chronic foot-in-mouth disease illustrates a point writers and editors should take careful notes about, because it’s going to be on the test. It has to do with history and repeating, but not with history repeating itself. It has to do with repeating accounts of historical events. Palin was in the news again last week because she recently made some confused statements about Paul Revere’s legendary ride, implying that one purpose of the mission was to warn the British military occupation that colonial militiamen were prepared to oppose their advance through Massachusetts to arrest rebel ringleaders and confiscate munitions. So, where’s the writing tip amid the historical histrionics? First, I readily concede that Palin is not an entirely reliable source of American history. But, in her defense, she actually got it partly right, and her detractors are also mistaken in some respects. Here’s the background: The legend of Paul Revere we all know from history class and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow is just that a legend. His ride is historical, but the details, as they’ve been handed down to us, are a bit muddled: Paul Revere was not a lone hero galloping off in the moonlight to rouse unprepared farmers and villagers to repel a surprise British advance. He was just a minor part of a long-prepared, well-organized network of planners, couriers, and militiamen who had rehearsed for the eventuality of the military maneuver, which they knew was inevitable. It was Longfellow’s poem that elevated a fairly trivial historical figure into an icon of the American Revolution. The most egregious issue in the latest Palin controversy is that one of her supporters attempted to revise Wikipedia’s Paul Revere page to deflect criticism of her. The intent was to support her by introducing a comment suggesting that it would have been odd for Revere to cry out, â€Å"The British are coming!† when those who responded to his call identified themselves by that term of nationality. A Wikipedia monitor rejected the change, but the truth is that it’s a valid point: Revere’s warning likely referred to â€Å"the regulars,† not â€Å"the British,† to announce the impending arrival of regular British army units. The British colonists in America were just that: British subjects. Many of them were disgruntled British subjects, but on the eve of the battles of Lexington and Concord, in April 1775, most of them remained loyal to the British crown and wanted not independence, but redress of grievances. Furthermore, British army scouts captured Revere before he accomplished his entire mission. It is at this point that he reportedly informed his captors of the stout defense they could expect if the army unit marched inland; one purpose of this challenge was evidently to try to divert them from the vicinity of the farmhouse where rebel leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock were in hiding. If this is true, then Sarah Palin’s comments are essentially accurate. On this point this post hinges: History is a work constantly in revision. Unfortunately, it is a target also of revisionism, and it is difficult to wade through legend and lore and romanticized heritage to reach the truth. And truth is asymptotic; you will never arrive at it. Walk halfway to a destination. Walk halfway again. And again. Repeat into infinity. You’ll never technically arrive, but you’ll get closer and it is incumbent on writers, when discussing history (or current events), to step ever forward toward the destination of truth. Resist complacent reliance on schoolbook history. Reject the partisan playbook. Read multiple sources of history and information originating from all along the ideological spectrum. Judge what you read and what you write by the standards of objectivity. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:70 "Home" Idioms and ExpressionsSocial vs. Societal35 Synonyms for Rain and Snow

Critically evaluate the view that Taylorism and Fordism have been Essay

Critically evaluate the view that Taylorism and Fordism have been replaced by post-Fordism as the means of organizing work in a capitalist society - Essay Example t and set forth new standards for employment organisation, proficiency, and machinery, allowing the system to cope with the continuously shifting market and highly technical atmosphere that is shaping the late twentieth century global economy. Nevertheless, philosophers themselves have criticised this modernisation. To them post-Fordism is just like Fordism. Neo-liberalism is just the same as liberalism and so goes for neo-Marxism and Marxism. According to Green (1997), postmodernism is to be perceived as the continuity of certain ideals current within it and not as a progression beyond it. True can be the same for Fordism and Post-Fordism. This essay will assess the current trends and models that have been adapted by the current society and realise if Fordism and/or Taylorism indeed has been replaced and if this replacement system offered any real changes in the management modules. Jessop (in Amin, 1994 p. 9) revealed the dynamism of Fordism and present four levels of analysis. First, Fordism is a labour process, an industrial paradigm that made use of assembly line technique for mass production, employing mass workers for mass consumption. Second, Fordism is a regime of accumulation. Owing to a steady form of macroeconomic growth, it entails a decent circle of growth owing mainly to mass production and a rise in income associated with productivity. A rise in productivity based on economies of balance. An increase in demand owing to increase in wages, rising profits secondary to full utilisation of productive competence leading to multiplication of investment in improved production equipment and performance. Thirdly, Fordism is a mode of regulation, linking to Taylorism and imploring the separation of ownership from control in large corporations, holding on to distinctive multi-divisional decentralised organisations run by one controlling body. Elevating it to a mode of socioeconomic regulation that takes into account pricing monopolisation, union recognition

Human Resource Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Human Resource Strategy - Case Study Example This company is a worker co-op. It is one of the most exemplary companies when it comes to implementation of best practice strategies. This is because all the employees within the organisation are part owners of the organisation. The organisation focuses on addressing all their needs whether in the reward section or elsewhere. On the other hand, the employees pay back these efforts through commitment and best performance. Best practice has formed one of the organisation's key strengths. John Lewis partnership has made sure that training is part of its human resource and development efforts. This is because it realises the value of this best practice strategy. Pfeffer and Velga (1999) explain the importance of training and development of skills within any organisation. A company that takes its employees through training solidifies their contribution to the company. This is because such employees get equipped with the ability to make decisions in their work. On top of this, such employees have high levels of initiative and will try their utmost best to improve their organisational contribution. Skill development is a characteristic part of the John Lewis Partnership because employees who feel the need to improve their skills are given opportunities to do so through training schemes. Youndt et al (1996) emphasise that training is one of the most fundamental aspects of best... They claim that no amount of training will contribute towards organisational development if employees are not granted the permission to practice those acquired skills. This means that an organisation should try its best to grant work autonomy to its employees and to empower them through training. John Lewis has achieved this very well. In other retail companies, line managers are given minimal responsibilities. Most of them are expected to consult with higher authorities in order to decide on issues. However, the company under study has eliminated that problem by training those members of staff (so that they can have necessary skills) and then allowing them to make independent decisions. They believe that this is a form of investment into human capital since most of these employees feel valued. According to the Classical and Human relations approach, an organisation's structure and operation are affected by certain situational factors such as technology, size and environment. However best practice advocates like Burnes (2000) came up with a contingency theory. He believes that a reward system within any company can affect the way it operates or how it is structured. Pfeffer (1994) believes that best practice companies should have a structure that places staff members into groups. Those groups should be such that they have the ability to make their own decisions. Another aspect of best practise firms is that they ought to have reward systems that are compact in nature. This implies that there should be minimal differences between different members of staff so that most employees within the organisation operate in a relatively independent manner with the ability to make their own decisions. John Lewis' strategic capability in this aspect of structure is

Soft Drink Industry Essay Example for Free

Soft Drink Industry Essay A soft drink is a non-alcoholic beverage typically containing water often carbonated water and a flavoring agent. Many of these beverages are sweetened by the addition of sugar or high fructose They may also contain ingredients such as caffeine and fruit juice. They are called soft in contrast to hard drinksthat is, alcoholic beverages. Small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content generally must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Soft drinks are usually served chilled or at room temperature, are rarely heated, and generally do not include milk or other dairy beverages. Beverages that are typically not considered soft drinks include hot chocolate, hot tea, coffee, pure juice and milkshake. History of soft drinks. Soft drinks trace their history back to the mineral waters found in natural springs. Ancient societies believed that bathing in natural springs and/or drinking mineral waters could cure many diseases. Among the earliest soft drinks were sherbets developed by Arabic chemists and originally served in the medieval Near East. Dandelion burdock, a naturally carbonated drink made from fermented dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and burdock (Arctium lappa) roots, was first made in England in around 1265. The first marketed soft drinks (non-carbonated) in the Western world appeared in the 17th century. They were made from water and lemon juice sweetened with honey. In 1676, the Compagnie des Limonadiers of Paris was granted a monopoly for the sale of lemonade soft drinks. Vendors carried tanks of lemonade on their backs and dispensed cups of the soft drink to thirsty Parisians. In late 18th century, scientists made important progress in replicating naturally carbonated mineral waters. In 1767, Englishman Joseph Priestley first discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide to make carbonated water when he suspended a bowl of distilled water above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. His invention of carbonated water, (also known as soda water), is the major and defining component of most soft drinks. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a refreshing drink.? 1881 The first cola-flavored beverage introduced. ? 1886 Dr. John S. Pemberton invented coca cola in Atlanta, Georgia. ? 1892 William Painter invented the crown bottle cap. ? 1898 Pepsi-Cola is invented by Caleb Bradham. ? Early 1920s The first automatic vending machines dispensed sodas into cups. ? 1957 The first aluminum cans used. ? 1959 The first diet cola sold. ? 1965 Soft drinks in cans dispensed from vending machines. ? 1970 Plastic bottles are used for soft drinks Coca cola and pepsi Coca-Cola was the 1st international soft drinks brand to enter India in early 1970’s. Re-entry of Coca-Cola in 1993 On the 26th of October 1993, Coca-Cola re-entered the Indian market having acquired some of the leading Indian soft drink brands from Parle, namely Thums-Up, Maaza, Limca, Goldspot Citra. These brands joined Coke’s portfolio of international brands i. e. Coca-Cola, Sprite, Fanta, Schweppes as Coca-Cola India took control of the top soft drink brands in India from the very beginning. From 1993 to 2003, company invested US $ 1 billion in India. Thebeginningofcolawar For the Cricket World Cup 1996, Pepsi was not the official sponsor of the tournament, Coke was. But Pepsi had a whole pool of best players roped in as brand ambassadors from the sub continent and abroad. The ad campaign of â€Å"Nothing Official About it† rocked the country and despite Coke being the official sponsor, it was Pepsi which hogged the publicity. In 1998, with the release of blockbuster movie â€Å"Kuch Kuch Hota Hai†, Pepsi took out another ace from its sleeve, featuring Shahrukh, Rani and Kajol in its ad. The punch line was â€Å"Yeh Dil Maange More† which was an iconic line and struck a chord amongst the people. Coca-Cola countered by spoofing the ad, using Sprite, to hilarious effect. Pepsi responded with a spoof of its own, starring Azhar and Jadeja hitting on the Coke line of â€Å"Eat Cricket, Sleep Cricket, Drink Only Coca Cola† with the punch line of â€Å"More More Cricket, More More Pepsi†. Coke again hit back, this time with Thumbs Up ad. They portrayed the cricketers as monkeys and ended the ad with â€Å"Don’t be a bunder (monkey) Taste the Thunder! † Situation turned ugly with Pepsi going to court and finally ended with Coke withdrawing the ad. The Cola wars went on full-fledged till 2003, when a pesticide controversy forced Coke and Pepsi to fight on the same side in so called â€Å"Indias New Cola Wars†. TheControversies Presence of Pesticides: In 2003, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) findings stirred the beverage industry in India. CSE claimed to find dangerous levels of pesticides in all the 57 samples of 11 soft drinks brands collected by the organization from 25 different manufacturing units of Coca-Cola and PepsiCo spread over 12 states. The study found a cocktail of three-five different pesticides in all the samples on an average 24 times higher than norms laid down by government-run Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS). Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Kerala banned the sale of Colas in schools, colleges and government departments, and other states also took adversarial measures. The day after the CSE’s announcement, Coke and Pepsi came together in a rare show of solidarity at a joint press conference. The companies attacked the credibility of the CSE and their lab results, citing regular testing at independent laboratories proving the safety of their products. They promised to provide this data to the public, threatened legal action against the CSE while seeking a gag order, and contacted the United States Embassy in India for assistance. They roped in major film stars to explain their purity to public. Despite all these measures, sales dipped by as much as 80% in some regions. The soft drinks industry took over a year to get back on the growth track. Ground Water Crisis: Coca-Cola was recently accused of ground water depletion in many areas of the country. Coca-Cola’s bottling operations – which extract hundreds of millions of liters of water from the groundwater resource – have significantly worsened the water crisis as groundwater levels have dropped sharply since Coca-Cola started its operations. The company was also accused of indiscriminately dumping its toxic waste into the surrounding areas – polluting the water as well as the land. The Coke reiterated its commitment to trim down water usage and take steps towards environment sustainability and farmer’s welfare. However, activists retort that Coca Cola is in the business of water usage and wasting, creating a luxury product largely for the middle class. Amidst various allegations and controversies, the soft drinks industry in India, supported by its booming economy, strengthening middle class and low per capita consumption, is growing at a cruising pace. The focus has shifted from carbonated drinks to Fruit drinks, with both the companies launching Lemon drinks in 2009-10. In the next few years, the fruit juice category is likely to carry the growth flag forward as consumers become more health conscious.

Shift In Plagued Society :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many aspects of European life changed as a result of â€Å"the Black Death.† Not least among these changes was the shift that occurred among the economic standing of the medieval family and the ultimate â€Å"ushering out† of the feudalistic age. Prior to the plague, society in Europe remained largely feudalistic. Kings had their lords, lords their dukes, dukes their barons, and so on and so forth, with the majority, the peasants, sitting at the bottom virtually providing for all the nobility above them. Providing for the masters of the land was not easy for the peasants, taxes here and there kept there worth low, and their only assets to begin with were the little they had, â€Å"their land, family labor, and capital†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hanawalt, p112)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Regrettably, for the nobles, things began to shift in the economic make up of Europe. As a noble, one was expected to maintain an army at call in return for land received from the king. Each successively lower noble had less land and a smaller army to maintain, but it remained that in order to be a noble one had many expenses to provide for. As the trade routes began to reopen after the plagues, people began to find the cities much more attractive than the farms that entailed a life of servitude to a lords.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prior to the plagues, the population of Europe as a whole had been largely stagnant, while there were famines rather frequently, they were merely a result of population overspill, and society as a whole did not topple. (Herlihy, p39) With the introduction of the plague to Europe, the city populations rapidly declined, thus making room in the cities for the farmers who eagerly entered the cities. Because they were, of course, not farming in the cities, people had to take up trades and so Europe began to flourish again economically. But because the people were living in the cities, they had little need to pay taxes to a lord, and thus emerged the middle class, a class that was able to make good money off of their trade, but, unlike the nobility, had no need to spend their money on armies and land maintenance, and could save for themselves. Furthermore, with the sharp drop in overall population peasants who continued to farm had a much smaller population to support, and as some peasants moved to the city, so did the farming peasants move to take over the land left over.

Andre Trocme

â€Å"These people came here for help and for shelter. I am their shepherd. A shepherd does not forsake his flock†¦ I do not know what a Jew is. I know only human beings. † Andre Trocme was born in St. Quentin, 1901, in the north of France to Huguenot parents. After seminary in Paris and graduate work at Union Theological Seminary in New York, he was ordained into the French Reformed Church and served for eight years among the coal miners and steel workers of Maubeuge and Sin-le-Noble, two small towns in the north of France. He preached nonviolence at a time when such views were unpopular in France. In 1934 Andre Trocme accepted a call to be pastor in the remote Huguenot village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon on the Plateau Vivarais-Lignon in South Central France. These parishioners were more sympathetic to his views on nonviolence. Magda Trocme (1901-1996) was born in Italy to an Italian father and a Russian mother. She graduated from the University of Florence with a degree in literature and earned further degrees in French. She and Andre Trocme met in the United States while she was attending the New York School of Social Work, and they were married in 1926. Together they had four children, Nelly, Jean-Pierre, Jacques, and Daniel. Andre Trocme was the spiritual leader of the Protestant congregation in the village of Le Chambon sur Lignon in South Eastern France. He urged his congregation in 1942 to give shelter to any Jew who asked for it. Village was soon filled with hundreds of Jews, both permanent and temporary depending on whether they were able to cross the border or not. Approx 5,000 Jews passed through Le Chambon. Vichy authorities knew what was happening for it was hard to hide. They demanded Trocme to stop but he refused and said â€Å"These people came here for help and for shelter. I am their shepherd, a Shepherd does not forsake his flock†¦ I do not know what a Jew is. I know only Human beings. † and for that he was arrested but shortly released. Andre then had to flee and hide from the Germans but the village kept his legacy and continued to shelter for the Jews. Magda Trocme was his wife and was involved in creating and maintaining this sanctuary made for the persecuted Jews. Part of Magda’s role was locating families who were willing to lodge Jewish refugees and prepared the town’s many residential schools for increased enrollment, but she was not the only one helping in this work. Community activists reported to the railroad station to receive the arriving refugees so they could then be housed by the town or taken to safer places. All these undertakings frustrated the regime’s anti-Jewish policies. Several days after august 15th, 1942, gendarmes moved into Le Chambon to â€Å"eliminate† the town of its â€Å"illegal† aliens and two weeks after that on August 30, rumors were around about an arrest warrant. Trocme urged the congregants to â€Å"do the will of God, not of men† and stressed the importance of the commandment in Deuteronomy 19:2-10 concerning the rights of the victimized and their need for shelter. There were no arrests that day, and several days later the gendarmes left the town, their mission failed. Approx 5,000 Jews passed through Le Chambon. Vichy authorities knew what was happening for it was hard to hide. They demanded Trocme to stop but he refused and said â€Å"These people came here for help and for shelter. I am their shepherd, a Shepherd does not forsake his flock†¦ I do not know what a Jew is. I know only Human beings. † In 1943, Trocme and two colleagues were arrested where he was held at a camp for 5 weeks. Commanders were trying to get him to sign an agreement that would mean following government orders, but refused and was later released but had to then flee from the Germans. Although he was gone the town still carried on without him, saving and hiding Jews lives. In the late 1940’s Andre and Magda Trocme traveled as European Secretaries for the International Fellowship of Reconciliation. On the 5th of January in 1971, Trocme and his wife, Magda were recognized for the Righteous among the nations along with 32 others from Le Chambon and in 1998 the town was given a diploma of honour for their humane gestures in the war.

Ap Bio Chapter 35 Notes

Chapter 35 Plant Structure, Growth, and Development Lecture Outline Overview: Plastic Plants? †¢ The fanwort, an aquatic weed, demonstrates the great developmental plasticity that is characteristic of plants. o The fanwort has feathery underwater leaves and large, flat, floating surface leaves. o Both leaf types have genetically identical cells, but the dissimilar environments in which they develop cause different genes involved in leaf formation to be turned on or off. In addition to plastic structural responses of individual plants to specific environments, plant species have adaptations in morphology that benefit them in their specific environments. o For example, cacti have leaves that are reduced to spines and a stem that serves as the primary site of photosynthesis. These adaptations minimize water loss in desert environments. †¢ The form of any plant is controlled by environmental and genetic factors. As a result, no two plants are identical. †¢ Angiosperms make up 90% of plant species and are at the base of the food web of nearly every terrestrial ecosystem. Most land animals, including humans, depend on angiosperms directly or indirectly for sustenance. Concept 35. 1 The plant body has a hierarchy of organs, tissues, and cells. †¢ Plants, like multicellular animals, have organs that are composed of different tissues, and tissues that are composed of different cell types. o A tissue is a group of cells with common structure and function. o An organ consists of several types of tissues that work together to carry out particular functions. Vascular plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves. The basic morphology of vascular plants reflects their evolutionary history as terrestrial organisms that inhabit and draw resources from two very different environments. o Vascular plants obtain water and minerals from the soil. o Vascular plants obtain CO2 and light above-ground. †¢ To obtain the resources they need, vascular p lants have evolved two systems: a subterranean root system and an aerial shoot system of stems and leaves. †¢ Each system depends on the other. o Lacking chloroplasts and living in the dark, roots would starve without photosynthates, the sugar and other carbohydrates imported from the shoot system. Conversely, the shoot system depends on water and minerals that roots absorb from the soil. Roots provide anchorage, absorption, and storage. †¢ A root is an organ that anchors a vascular plant in the soil, absorbs minerals and water, and stores sugars and starches. †¢ Most eudicots and gymnosperms have a taproot system, consisting of one large vertical root (the taproot) that develops from an embryonic root. †¢ The taproot produces many small lateral, or branch, roots. o In angiosperms, taproots often store sugars and starches that later support flowering and fruit production. Taproot systems generally penetrate deeply and are well adapted to deep soils. †¢ In se edless vascular plants and most monocots, including grasses, the embryonic root dies and does not form a main root. †¢ Instead, many small roots grow from the stem. Such roots are adventitious, a terms describing a plant organ that grows in an unusual location. †¢ Each small root forms its own lateral roots, giving rise to a fibrous root system—a mat of thin roots that spread out below the soil surface. o A fibrous root system is usually shallower than a taproot system and is best adapted to shallow soils with light rainfall. Grass roots are concentrated in the upper few centimeters of soil. As a result, grasses make excellent ground cover for preventing erosion. †¢ The root system helps anchor a plant. †¢ In both taproot and fibrous root systems, absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tips, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs enormously increase the surface area. o Root hairs are short-lived, tubular extensions of individual root epiderma l cells. †¢ Some plants have modified roots. Some arise from roots, while others are adventitious, arising above-ground from stems or even from leaves. Some modified roots provide additional support and anchorage. Others store water and nutrients or absorb oxygen from the air. Stems consist of alternating nodes and internodes. †¢ A stem is an organ consisting of alternating nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and internodes, the stem segments between nodes. †¢ At the angle formed by each leaf and the stem is an axillary bud with the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch. †¢ The growth of a young shoot is usually concentrated at its apex, where there is an apical bud, or terminal bud, with developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes. The presence of a terminal bud is partly responsible for inhibiting the growth of axillary buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance. o By concentrating resources on growing taller, apical dominan ce is an evolutionary adaptation that increases the plant’s exposure to light. †¢ In the absence of a terminal bud, the axillary buds break dormancy and give rise to lateral shoots complete with their own apical buds, leaves, and axillary buds. o This is why pruning trees and shrubs makes them bushier. †¢ Modified shoots with diverse functions have evolved in many plants. These shoots, which include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs, are often mistaken for roots. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of most plants. †¢ The leaf is the primary site of photosynthetic organs of most plants, although green stems are also photosynthetic. †¢ Although leaves vary extensively in form, they generally consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, the petiole, which joins the leaf to a stem node. o Grasses and other monocots lack petioles. In these plants, the base of the leaf forms a sheath that envelops the stem. Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement o f veins, the vascular tissue of leaves. †¢ Most monocots have parallel major veins that run the length of the blade, while eudicot leaves have a branched network of major veins. †¢ Plant taxonomists use floral morphology, leaf morphology, the branching pattern of veins, and the spatial arrangement of leaves to help identify and classify plants. o For example, simple leaves have a single, undivided blade, while compound leaves have several leaflets attached to the petiole. o Many large leaves are compound, which allows them to withstand strong winds without tearing. The structural adaptation of compound leaves also confines pathogens that invade the leaf to one leaflet. †¢ Most leaves are specialized for photosynthesis. †¢ Some plants have leaves that have become adapted for other functions, including tendrils that cling to supports, spines of cacti for defense, leaves modified for water storage, and brightly colored leaves that attract pollinators. Plant organs a re composed of three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. †¢ Each organ of a plant has three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Each system is continuous throughout the plant body. †¢ The dermal tissue system is the plant’s outer protective covering. †¢ In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system is a single layer of tightly packed cells, or epidermis. †¢ The epidermis of leaves and most stems secretes a waxy coating, the cuticle, which helps the aerial parts of the plant retain water. †¢ In woody plants, protective tissues called periderm replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots. †¢ The epidermis has other specialized characteristics consistent with the function of the organ it covers. For example, the root hairs are extensions of epidermal cells near the tips of the roots. o Trichomes, outgrowths of shoot epidermis, reduce water loss and reflect light. They protect against insects with sticky secret ions of insecticidal biochemicals. †¢ The vascular tissue system is involved in the transport of materials between roots and shoots. o Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots. o Phloem transports sugars, the products of photosynthesis, to the roots and sites of growth, such as developing leaves and fruits. †¢ The vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stele. In angiosperms, the root stele forms a solid central vascular cylinder, while the stele of stems and leaves consists of vascular bundles, separate strands of xylem and phloem. †¢ Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues with a variety of cell types. †¢ The ground tissue system is tissue that is neither dermal nor vascular. †¢ Ground tissue is divided into pith, internal to vascular tissue, and cortex, external to the vascular tissue. †¢ The functions of specialized cells within ground tissue include photosynthesis, storage, and support. Plant tissues ar e composed of three basic cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Plant cells are differentiated, with each type of plant cell possessing structural adaptations that make specific functions possible. o Cell differentiation may be evident within the protoplast, the cell contents exclusive of the cell wall. o Modifications of cell walls also play a role in plant cell differentiation. †¢ The major types of differentiated plant cells are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, water-conducting cells of the xylem, and sugar-conducting cells of the phloem. †¢ Mature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and flexible; most lack secondary walls. The protoplast of a parenchyma cell usually has a large central vacuole. †¢ Parenchyma cells are often depicted as â€Å"typical† plant cells because they generally are the least specialized, but there are exceptions. o For example, the highly specialized sieve-tube elements of the phloem ar e parenchyma cells. †¢ Parenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing various organic products. o For example, photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. o Some parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have colorless plastids that store starch. The fleshy tissue of most fruit is composed of parenchyma cells. †¢ Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types under special conditions, such as the repair and replacement of organs after injury to the plant. †¢ In the laboratory, it is possible to regenerate an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell. †¢ Collenchyma cells have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, although the walls are unevenly thick. †¢ Grouped into strands or cylinders, collenchyma cells help support young parts of the plant shoot. Young stems and petioles often have strands of collenchyma just below the epi dermis, providing support without restraining growth. †¢ Mature collenchyma cells are living and flexible and elongate with the stems and leaves they support. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells have thick secondary walls usually strengthened by lignin; they function as supporting elements of the plant. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. †¢ Unlike parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells occur in plant regions that have stopped lengthening. Many sclerenchyma cells are dead at functional maturity, but they produce rigid secondary cells walls before the protoplast dies. o In parts of the plant that are still elongating, secondary walls are deposited in a spiral or ring pattern, enabling the cell wall to stretch like a spring as the cell grows. †¢ Two types of sclerenchyma cells, fibers and sclereids, are specialized entirely for support. o Fibers are long, slender, and tapered, and usually occur in group s. ? Fibers from hemp are used for making rope, and fibers from flax are woven into linen. o Sclereids are irregular in shape and shorter than fibers.They have very thick, lignified secondary walls. ? Sclereids impart hardness to nutshells and seed coats and the gritty texture to pear fruits. †¢ The water-conducting elements of xylem, the tracheids and vessel elements, are elongated cells that are dead at functional maturity. o The thickened cell walls remain as a nonliving conduit through which water can flow. †¢ Both tracheids and vessels have secondary walls interrupted by pits, thinner regions where only primary walls are present. †¢ Water moves from cell to cell mainly through pits. †¢ Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. Because their secondary walls are hardened with lignin, tracheids function in support as well as transport. †¢ Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, thinner-walled, and less tapered than tracheids. †¢ Vessel e lements are aligned end to end, forming long micropipes or xylem vessels. †¢ The ends are perforated, enabling water to flow freely. †¢ In the phloem, sucrose, other organic compounds, and some mineral ions move through tubes formed by chains of cells called sieve-tube elements. †¢ Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, although a sieve-tube element lacks a nucleus, ribosomes, and a distinct vacuole. The end walls, the sieve plates, have pores that facilitate the flow of fluid between cells. †¢ Each sieve-tube element has a nonconducting nucleated companion cell, which is connected to the sieve-tube element by numerous plasmodesmata. †¢ The nucleus and ribosomes of the companion cell serve both that cell and the adjacent sieve-tube element. †¢ In some plants, companion cells in leaves help load sugar into the sieve-tube elements, which transport the sugars to other parts of the plant. Concept 35. 2 Meristems generate cells for new organs. A major difference between plants and most animals is that plant growth is not limited to an embryonic or juvenile period. †¢ Most plants demonstrate indeterminate growth, growing as long as the plant lives. †¢ In contrast, most animals and certain plant organs, such as flowers, leaves, and thorns, undergo determinate growth, ceasing to grow after they reach a certain size. †¢ Indeterminate growth does not mean immortality. †¢ Annuals complete their life cycle—from germination to flowering to seed production to death—in a single year or less. o Many wildflowers and important food crops, such as cereals and legumes, are annuals. The lives of biennials span two years, with flowering and fruiting in the second year. o Radishes and carrots are biennials that are harvested after the first year. †¢ Plants such as trees, shrubs, and some grasses that live many years are perennials. o Some buffalo grass of the North American plains has been growing fo r 10,000 years from seeds that sprouted at the end of the last ice age. o Perennials do not usually die from old age but from an infection or some environmental trauma, such as fire or drought. †¢ A plant is capable of indeterminate growth because it has perpetually embryonic tissues called meristems. Apical meristems, located at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots, supply cells for the plant to grow in length. †¢ This elongation, primary growth, enables roots to extend through the soil and shoots to increase their exposure to light and carbon dioxide. †¢ In herbaceous plants, primary growth produces almost all of the plant body. †¢ Woody plants also show secondary growth, progressive thickening of roots and shoots where primary growth has ceased. †¢ Secondary growth is produced by lateral meristems, cylinders of dividing cells that extend along the lengths of roots and shoots. The vascular cambium adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xyle m and phloem. o The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with thicker, tougher periderm. †¢ The cells within meristems divide to generate additional cells, some of which remain in the meristematic region, while others differentiate and are incorporated into the tissues and organs of the growing plant. o Cells that remain as sources of new cells are called initials. o Cells that are displaced from the meristem, called derivatives, continue to divide until the cells they produce become specialized within developing tissues. At the tip of a winter twig of a deciduous tree is the dormant apical bud, enclosed by scales that protect its apical meristem. †¢ In the spring, the bud sheds its scales and begins a new spurt of primary growth. †¢ Along each growth segment, nodes are marked by scars left when leaves fell in the autumn. †¢ Above each leaf scar is either an axillary bud or a branch twig. †¢ Farther down the twig are whorls of scars left by the scales that en closed the apical bud during the preceding winter. †¢ Each spring and summer, as primary growth extends the shoot, secondary growth thickens the parts of the shoot that formed in earlier years. Concept 35. Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots. †¢ Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems. o Herbaceous plants and the youngest parts of woody plants represent the primary plant body. †¢ Apical meristems lengthen both roots and shoots. However, there are important differences in the primary growth of these two systems. †¢ The root tip is covered by a thimble-like root cap, which protects the meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth. o The cap also secretes a polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil around the growing root tip. Growth in length is concentrated just behind the root tip, where three zones of cells at successive stages of primary growth are located. †¢ These zones—the zone of cell division, the zone of elongation, and the zone of differentiation—grade together. †¢ The zone of cell division includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. o New root cells are produced in this region, including the cells of the root cap. †¢ The zone of cell division blends into the zone of elongation, where cells elongate, sometimes to more than ten times their original length. It is this elongation of cells that is mainly responsible for pushing the root tip, including the meristem, into the soil. o The meristem sustains growth by continuously adding cells to the youngest end of the zone of elongation. †¢ In the zone of differentiation, cells complete differentiation and become distinct cell types. †¢ The primary growth of roots produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. †¢ Water and minerals absorbed from the soil must enter the plant through the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering the root. Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of epidermal cells. †¢ Most roots have a vascular cylinder of xylem and phloem. o In eudicot roots, xylem radiates from the center like a star, with phloem developing between the arms of the xylem â€Å"star. † o In monocot roots, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of parenchyma surrounded by alternating xylem and phloem. The central region, called pit, is distinct from stem pith. †¢ The ground tissue of roots consists of parenchyma cells that fill the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and the epidermis. Cells within the ground tissue store sugars and starches, and their plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil. †¢ The innermost layer of the cortex, the endodermis, is a cylinder one cell thick that forms a selective barrier between the cortex and the vascular cylinder. †¢ Lateral roots may sprout from the outermost layer of the vascula r cylinder, the pericycle. o A lateral root pushes through the cortex and epidermis to emerge from the established root. o The vascular tissue of the lateral root is continuous with the vascular cylinder of the primary root. The apical meristem of a shoot is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip. †¢ Leaves arise as leaf primordia on the flanks of the apical meristem. †¢ Axillary buds develop from islands of meristematic cells left by apical meristems at the bases of the leaf primordia. †¢ Within a bud, leaf primordia are crowded close together because the internodes are very short. †¢ Most of the elongation of the shoot occurs by growth in length of slightly older internodes below the shoot apex. †¢ In some plants, including grasses, internodes continue to elongate all along the length of the shoot over a prolonged period. These plants have meristematic regions called intercalary meristems at the base of each leaf. o This explains why grass c ontinues to grow after being mowed. †¢ Unlike its central position in a root, vascular tissue runs the length of a stem in strands called vascular bundles. o Because the vascular system of the stem is near the surface, branches can develop with connections to the vascular tissue without having to originate from deep within the main shoot. †¢ In most eudicots, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, with pith inside and cortex outside the ring. The vascular bundles have xylem facing the pith and phloem facing the cortex. †¢ In the stems of most monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue rather than arranged in a ring. †¢ In both monocots and eudicots, the stem’s ground tissue is mostly parenchyma. †¢ Many stems are strengthened by collenchyma cells just beneath the epidermis. †¢ Sclerenchyma fiber cells also provide support. †¢ The epidermal barrier of leaves is interrupted only by stomata, tiny pores that regulate gas exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside a leaf. Each stomatal pore is flanked by two specialized epidermal cells called guard cells. o The term stoma can refer to either the stomatal pore or the entire stomatal complex, the pore and two guard cells. †¢ The stomata are also the major avenues of evaporative water loss from the plant—a process called transpiration. †¢ The ground tissue of the leaf, the mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. †¢ The mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. †¢ In many eudicots, a layer or more of columnar palisade mesophyll lies above spongy mesophyll. CO2 and oxygen circulate through the labyrinth of air spaces around the irregularly spaced cells of the spongy mesophyll. †¢ The air spaces are particularly large near stomata, where gas exchange with the outside air occurs. †¢ The vascular tissue of a leaf is cont inuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. †¢ Leaf traces, connections from vascular bundles in the stem, pass through petioles and into leaves. †¢ Vascular bundles in the leaves are called veins. Each vein is enclosed in a protective bundle sheath consisting of one or more layers of parenchyma. o Bundle-sheath cells are prominent in leaves that undergo C4 photosynthesis. Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. †¢ The xylem brings water and minerals to the photosynthetic tissues, and the phloem carries sugars and other organic products to other parts of the plant. †¢ The vascular infrastructure also functions to support and reinforce the shape of the leaf. Concept 35. 4 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants. †¢ The stems and roots of most eudicots increase in girth by secondary growth. †¢ The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and the cork cambiu m. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, increasing vascular flow and support for the shoot system. o The cork cambium produces a tough, thick covering consisting of wax-impregnated cells that protect the stem from water loss and invasion by insects, bacteria, and fungal spores. †¢ Primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different regions. o Elongation of the stem (primary growth) occurs at the apical meristem, but increases in diameter (secondary growth) occur farther down the stem. †¢ All gymnosperms and many eudicots have secondary growth, but it is rare in monocots. The vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells that may be one cell thick. †¢ The vascular cambium forms successive layers of secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior. †¢ The accumulation of this tissue over the years accounts for most of the increase in diameter of a woody plant. †¢ The vascular cambium d evelops from parenchyma cells that retain the capacity to divide. o In a typical woody stem, the vascular cambium forms as a continuous cylinder outside the cortex and primary xylem and inside the pith and primary phloem. In a typical woody root, the vascular cambium forms in segments between the primary phloem, the lobes of primary xylem, and the pericycle. †¢ Viewed in cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials. o As these cells divide, they increase the circumference of the vascular cambium, adding secondary xylem to the inside of the cambium and secondary phloem to the outside. †¢ Some initials are elongated, with long axes parallel to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce cells such as tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers of the xylem. They also produce sieve-tube elements, companion cells, parenchyma, and fibers of the phloem. †¢ Other initials are shorter, oriented perpendicular to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce vascular rays that transfer water and nutrients laterally within the woody stem, store sugars and starches, and aid in wound repair. †¢ As secondary growth continues over the years, layer upon layer of secondary xylem accumulate, producing the tissue we call wood. †¢ Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel elements (in angiosperms), and fibers. These cells, dead at functional maturity, have thick, lignified walls that give wood its hardness and strength. †¢ The first tracheid and vessel cells formed in the spring (early wood) have larger diameters and thinner walls than the cells produced later in the summer (late wood). o The structure of the early wood maximizes delivery of water to new, expanding leaves. o The thick-walled cells of later wood provide more physical support. †¢ In temperate regions, secondary growth in perennial plants ceases during the winter. †¢ This pattern of growth—cambium dormancy, early wood production, and late wood production—produces annual growth rings. Dendrochronology is the science of analyzing tree ring growth patterns. o Scientists can use ring patterns to identify climate change. †¢ As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem, known as heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals. o Heartwood contains resins and other compounds that protect the core of the tree from fungi and insects. †¢ The outer layers, known as sapwood, continue to transport xylem sap. †¢ Because each new layer of secondary xylem has a larger circumference, secondary growth enables the xylem to transport more sap each year, supplying more leaves. Only the youngest secondary phloem, closest to the vascular cambium, functions in sugar transport. †¢ The older secondary phloem dies and is sloughed off as part of the bark. †¢ Early in secondary growth, the epidermis produced by primary growth splits, dries, and falls off the stem or root. †¢ The e pidermis is replaced by two tissues produced by the first cork cambium, which arises in the outer cortex of stems and in the outer layer of the pericycle of roots. †¢ The first tissue, phelloderm, is a thin layer of parenchyma cells that forms to the interior of the cork cambium. The cork cambium also produces cork cells, which accumulate at the cambium’s exterior. †¢ Waxy material called suberin deposited in the cell walls of cork cells before they die acts as a barrier against water loss, physical damage, and pathogens. †¢ A cork cambium and the tissues it produces make up a layer of periderm, a protective layer that replaces the epidermis. †¢ Because cork cells have suberin and are compacted together, the periderm is impermeable to water and gases. †¢ In most plants, water and minerals are absorbed in the youngest parts of the roots. The older parts of the roots anchor the plant and transport water and solutes between roots and shoots. †¢ In a reas called lenticels, spaces develop between the cork cells of the periderm. o These areas within the trunk facilitate gas exchange with the outside air. †¢ The thickening of a stem or root splits the first cork cambium, which loses its meristematic activity and differentiates into cork cells. †¢ A new cork cambium forms to the inside, resulting in a new layer of periderm. †¢ As this process continues, older layers of periderm are sloughed off. o This produces the cracked, peeling bark of many tree trunks. Bark is all tissues external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem (produced by the vascular cambium), the most recent periderm, and all the outer layers of periderm. Concept 35. 5 Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body. †¢ The development of body form and organization is called morphogenesis. †¢ During plant development, a single cell, the zygote, gives rise to a multicellular plant of a particular form with funct ionally integrated cells, tissues, and organs. †¢ Each cell in the plant body contains the same genomes, but different patterns of gene expression cause cells to differentiate. The three developmental processes of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation act to transform the fertilized egg into a plant. Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants. †¢ Modern molecular techniques enable plant biologists to investigate how growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation give rise to a plant. †¢ Much of this research has focused on Arabidopsis thaliana, a small weed in the mustard family. o Thousands of these small plants can be cultivated in a few square meters of lab space. o With a generation time of about six weeks, Arabidopsis is an excellent model for genetic studies. Arabidopsis also has one of the smallest genomes of all known plants. †¢ Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in a six-year multinational proje ct. o More recently, rice and poplar trees have had their entire genomes sequenced. †¢ Arabidopsis has a total of about 26,000 genes, with fewer than 15,000 different types of genes. †¢ Now that the DNA sequence of Arabidopsis is known, plant biologists are working to identify the functions of every one of the plant’s genes. †¢ To aid in this effort, biologists are attempting to create mutants for every gene in the plant’s genome. Study of the functions of these genes has already expanded our understanding of plant development. †¢ By identifying each gene’s function, researchers aim to establish a blueprint for how plants develop, a major goal of systems biology. †¢ One day it may be possible to create a computer-generated â€Å"virtual plant† that will enable researchers to visualize which plant genes are activated in different parts of the plant during the entire course of development. Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion. †¢ Cell division in meristems increases the cell number, thereby increasing the potential for growth. However, it is cell expansion, especially cell elongation, that accounts for the increase in plant mass. †¢ The plane (direction) and symmetry of cell division are important determinants of plant form. o If the planes of division by a single cell and its descendents are parallel to the plane of the first cell division, a single file of cells will be produced. o If the planes of cell division of the descendent cells vary at random, an unorganized clump of cells will result. †¢ Although mitosis results in the equal allocation of chromosomes to daughter cells, cytokinesis may be asymmetrical. Asymmetrical cell division, in which one cell receives more cytoplasm than the other, is common in plant cells and usually signals a key developmental event. o For example, guard cells arise from an unspecialized epidermal cell through an asymmetrical cell division to fo rm a large unspecialized epidermal cell and a small guard cell â€Å"mother cell. † o Guard cells form when the small mother cell divides in a plane perpendicular to the first cell division. †¢ The plane in which a cell will divide is determined during late interphase. †¢ Microtubules in the outer cytoplasm become concentrated into a ring, the preprophase band. Although this ring disappears before metaphase, its â€Å"imprint† consists of an ordered array of actin microfilaments that remains after the microtubules disperse and signals the future plane of cell division. †¢ Cell expansion in animal cells is quite different from cell expansion in plant cells. o Animal cells grow by synthesizing a protein-rich cytoplasm, a metabolically expensive process. †¢ Growing plant cells add some protein-rich material to their cytoplasm, but water uptake by the large central vacuole accounts for 90% of a plant cell’s expansion. o This enables plants to gro w economically and rapidly. For example, bamboo shoots can elongate more than 2 m per week. †¢ Rapid expansion of shoots and roots increases plants’ exposure to light and soil, an important evolutionary adaptation to the immobile lifestyle of plants. †¢ In a growing plant cell, enzymes weaken cross-links in the cell wall, allowing it to expand as water diffuses into the vacuole by osmosis. †¢ The wall loosens when hydrogen ions secreted by the cell activate cell wall enzymes that break the cross-links between polymers in the wall. †¢ This reduces restraint on the turgid cell, which can take up more water and expand. Small vacuoles coalesce to form the cell’s central vacuole. †¢ The greatest expansion of a plant cell is usually oriented along the plant’s main axis. o The orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the innermost layers of the cell wall cause this differential growth, as the cell expands mainly perpendicular to the â€Å"grai n† of the microfibrils. o The orientation of microtubules in the cell’s outermost cytoplasm determines the orientation of cellulose microfibrils, the basic structural units of the cell wall. Arabidopsis mutants confirm the role of cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and growth. Studies of Arabidopsis mutants have confirmed the importance of cytoplasmic microtubules in both cell division and expansion. †¢ For example, fass mutants have unusually squat cells, which follow seemingly random planes of cell division. †¢ The roots and stems of fass mutants lack the ordered cell files and layers. †¢ Fass mutants develop into tiny adult plants with all their organs compressed longitudinally. †¢ The organization of microtubules in fass mutants is abnormal. o In interphase cells, the microtubules are randomly positioned. Preprophase bands do not form prior to mitosis. o Therefore, the cellulose microfibrils deposited in the cell wall cannot be arranged to determine the direction of the cell’s elongation. †¢ Cells with a fass mutation expand in all directions equally and divide in a haphazard arrangement, leading to stout stature and disorganized tissues. Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation. †¢ Morphogenesis organizes dividing and expanding cells into multicellular tissues and organs. †¢ The development of specific structures in specific locations is called pattern formation. Pattern formation depends to a large extent on positional information, signals that continuously indicate each cell’s location within an embryonic structure. †¢ Within a developing organ, each cell responds to positional information by differentiating into a particular cell type. †¢ Developmental biologists are accumulating evidence that gradients of specific molecules, generally proteins or mRNAs, provide positional information. o For example, a substance diffusing from a shoot’s apical meristem may â€Å"in form† the cells below of their distance from the shoot tip. A second chemical signal produced by the outermost cells may enable a cell to gauge its position relative to the radial axis of the developing organ. o Developmental biologists are testing the hypothesis that diffusible chemical signals provide plant cells with positional information. †¢ One type of positional information is polarity, the identification of the root end and shoot end along a well-developed axis. †¢ Axial polarity results in morphological and physiological differences. †¢ The unidirectional movement of the hormone auxin causes the emergence of adventitious roots and shoots from the appropriate ends of plant cuttings. The establishment of axial polarity is a critical step in plant morphogenesis. †¢ The first division of a plant zygote is normally asymmetrical and may initiate the polarization of the plant body into root and shoot ends. †¢ Once this polarity has been induced, it i s very difficult to reverse experimentally. o In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis, the first division is symmetrical, and the resulting ball-shaped plant lacks roots and leaves. †¢ Other genes that regulate pattern formation and morphogenesis include master regulatory genes called homeotic genes, which mediate many developmental events, such as organ initiation. For example, the protein product of the KNOTTED-1 homeotic gene is important for the development of leaf morphology, including the production of compound leaves. o Overexpression of this gene causes the compound leaves of a tomato plant to become â€Å"supercompound. † Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression. †¢ The diverse cell types of a plant, including guard cells, sieve-tube elements, and xylem vessel elements, all descend from a common cell, the zygote, and share the same DNA. The cloning of whole plants from single somatic cells demonstrates that the genome of a differentiated cell remains intact and can dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise to the diverse cell types of a plant. †¢ Cellular differentiation depends, to a large extent, on the control of gene expression. †¢ Cells with the same genomes follow different developmental pathways because they selectively express certain genes at specific times during differentiation. †¢ The activation or inactivation of specific genes involved in cellular differentiation depends on positional information—where a particular cell is located relative to other cells. For example, two distinct cell types in Arabidopsis, root hair cells and hairless epidermal cells, develop from immature epidermal cells. o Cells in contact with one underlying cortical cell differentiate into mature, hairless cells, while those in contact with two underlying cortical cells differentiate into root hair cells. o The homeotic gene GLABRA-2 is normally expressed only in hairless cells. If it is rendered dysfu nctional, every root epidermal cell develops a root hair. Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of a cell’s location in its developmental fate. In the process of shaping an organ, patterns of cell division and cell expansion affect the differentiation of cells by placing them in specific locations relative to other cells. †¢ Thus, positional information underlies all the processes of development: growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation. †¢ One approach to studying the relationship among these processes is clonal analysis, mapping the cell lineages (clones) derived from each cell in an apical meristem as organs develop. †¢ Researchers use mutations to distinguish a specific meristematic cell from the neighboring cells in the shoot tip. For example, a somatic mutation in an apical cell that prevents chlorophyll production produces an â€Å"albino† cell. o This cell and all its descendants appear as a linear file of colorless cells running down the long axis of the green shoot. †¢ To some extent, the developmental fates of cells in the shoot apex are predictable. o For example, clonal mapping has shown that almost all the cells derived from division of the outermost meristematic cells become part of the dermal tissue of leaves and stems. It is not possible to pinpoint precisely which cells of the meristem will give rise to specific tissues and organs, however, because random changes in rates and planes of cell division can reorganize the meristem. o For example, the outermost cells usually divide in a plane parallel to the surface of the shoot tip. o Occasionally, however, an outer cell divides in a plane perpendicular to this layer, placing one daughter cell beneath the surface, among cells derived from different lineages. †¢ In plants, a cell’s developmental fate is determined not by its membership in a particular lineage but by its final position in an emerging organ.Phase changes mark majo r shifts in development. †¢ In plants, developmental changes can occur within the shoot apical meristem, leading to a phase change in the organs produced. o One example of a phase change is the gradual transition from a juvenile phase to an adult phase. o In some plants, the result of the phase change is a change in the size and shape of leaves. o The leaves of juvenile and mature shoot regions differ in shape and other features. o Once the meristem has laid down the juvenile nodes and internodes, they retain that status even as the shoot continues to elongate and the meristem changes to the mature phase. If axillary buds give rise to branches, those shoots reflect the developmental phase of the main shoot region from which they arise. o Although the main shoot apex may have made the transition to the mature phase, the older region of the shoot continues to give rise to branches bearing juvenile leaves if that shoot region was laid down when the main apex was still in the juven ile phase. o A branch with juvenile leaves may actually be older than a branch with mature leaves. †¢ The juvenile-to-mature phase transition points to another difference in the development of plants versus animals. o In an animal, this ransition occurs at the level of the entire organism, as a larva develops into an adult animal. o In plants, phase changes during the history of apical meristems can result in juvenile and mature regions coexisting along the axis of each shoot. Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristem’s change from a vegetative to a floral phase. †¢ Another striking phase change in plant development is the transition from a vegetative shoot tip to a floral meristem. †¢ This transition is triggered by a combination of environmental cues, such as day length, and internal signals, such as hormones. Unlike vegetative growth, which is indeterminate, the production of a flower by an apical meristem stops primary growth of that shoo t. †¢ This transition is associated with switching â€Å"on† floral meristem identity genes. †¢ The protein products of these genes are transcription factors that help activate the genes required for the development of the floral meristem. †¢ Once a shoot meristem is induced to flower, positional information commits each primordium arising from the flanks of the shoot tip to develop into a specific flower organ—a sepal, petal, stamen, or carpel. Viewed from above, the floral organs develop in four concentric circles, or whorls. o Sepals form the fourth (outermost) whorl, petals form the third, stamens form the second, and carpels form the first (innermost) whorl. †¢ Organ identity genes, or plant homeotic genes, regulate positional information and function in the development of the floral pattern. o Mutations in these genes may lead to the substitution of one type of floral organ for the expected one. †¢ Organ identity genes code for transcript ion factors. †¢ Positional information determines which organ identity genes are expressed in which particular floral-organ primordium. In Arabidopsis, three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs. †¢ The ABC model of flower formation identifies how these genes direct the formation of four types of floral organs. †¢ The ABC model proposes that each class of organ identity genes is switched â€Å"on† in two specific whorls of the floral meristem. o A genes are switched on in the two outer whorls (sepals and petals), B genes are switched on in the two middle whorls (petals and stamens), and C genes are switched on in the two inner whorls (stamens and carpels). Sepals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only A genes are active. o Petals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which A and B genes are active. o Stamens arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which B and C genes are a ctive. o Carpels arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only C genes are active. †¢ The ABC model can account for the phenotypes of mutants lacking A, B, or C gene activity. o When gene A is missing, it inhibits C, and vice versa. o If either A or C is missing, the other takes its place.

Islam, Women and Overcoming Adversity Essays

Islam, Women and Overcoming Adversity Essays Islam, Women and Overcoming Adversity Paper Islam, Women and Overcoming Adversity Paper Rida is a veil/covering from head to toe of Muslim women belonging to the dawoodi bohra, Shia sect of Islam. At adolescence, men and women have the opportunity to enter faith by giving an oath- also known as misaq- to the community’s spiritual head. Misaq is formally considered as religious birth. In simpler terms, it is a passage from childhood to adulthood. Agreeing to the covenants of misaq means that one will sincerely uphold the tenets of Islam, follow the community’s guidelines, as well as understand the duties as a Muslim. During the ceremony of misaq, both men and women vow to endorse the expectations of cover. Men must keep an untrimmed beard, and women must wear rida. At the age of thirteen, I was caught puffing on tobacco. My actions were considered impure, and since I hadn’t reached puberty all the sins were to be burdened by my parents. Being the youngest, yet most spoiled of four children, my parents and close relatives had lost all expectations of my decency. In the year of my fourteenth birthday, I decided to participate in oath taking ceremony. Although I didn’t give much affirmation to the ritual, I part-took only to fulfil the formality. My parents were already distressed bearing my unorthodox way of life, and now the move to America came closer. The idea of move brought a lot of responsibilities to my parents. They had to wrap-up decades-old business, and leave two older children. Relatives that I didn’t even know the relationship of, came in to urge caution to my parents on the exotic young adults’ culture of America. It seemed as though clouds of gloom had descended upon them. Stepping on the soil of United States, I literally felt a cool breeze through my face. Thinking now, it was probably the effect of breeze that made me question my actions and a way of life. I had left behind the past. It was now time to re-write the story from the beginning, a crisp page for a new life. After two years of resid

The 14 College Interview Questions You Must Prepare For

The 14 College Interview Questions You Must Prepare For SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The college interview process can be nerve-racking. This interview gives the college you're applying to another opportunity to evaluate you and help determine whether or not to offer you admission. However, your college interviews won't be nearly as scary if you know what to expect. In this article, I give you the 14 college interview questions you absolutely must prepare for. I explain why you're being asked these questions and how to provide greatanswers. Furthermore, I offer advice onhow to prepare for your interviews so that when the time comes, you'll be ready to ace them. A Short Introduction to College Interviews A college interview provides a college with an opportunity to give you more information about the school and answer any questions. In addition, the interview gives the college a chanceto learn more about you, your interests, and how you’ll be able to contribute to the school. Very few colleges require interviews, although a fair number offer optional or recommended ones. These are typically highly selective or small private colleges, such asColumbia, Occidental, and Bates.Most large public universities don’t even offer interviews because there are simply too many applicants. Check a college’s website or contact its admissions office to determine whether interviews are offered and how to schedule one.Interviews can be on-campus, usually with an admissions representative, or off-campus near where you live, usually with an alumnus of the college. If you have the option of getting interviewed, do it.It’s to your benefit to take advantage of an opportunity to interview because it shows the school that you’re genuinely interested in attending. And demonstrating interest can greatly help your chances of admission. Finally, the interview gives the school another chance to get to know you outside of what’s in your application. Try not to stress about the interview too much, though. As long as you’re polite, attentive, and prepared, it should only help your chances of getting accepted. The interview will also give you an opportunity to learn more about the school,and help you decidewhether or not it might be a good fit for you. souvenirsofcanada/Flickr Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. The 14 Most Common College Interview Questions The questions I’m listing and explaining were either referenced inmultiple admissions websites andinterview advice guides, or are general enough that you’ll be able to answer a number of similarquestions by preparing for them. Below, I provide you with eachquestion. I then explain why colleges are asking it, what they're looking for in a response, and how you can prepare for the question ahead of time. Question 1: Tell Me About Yourself This isn’t even actually a question, but it’s something you might be asked to do in an interview. Because it’s so general, you might have trouble figuring out where to begin. Why they're asking this: Colleges are asking you to do this because they really do want to know more about you. That's one of the primary purposes of the interview, after all! What they're looking for:You need to paint a unique portrait of who you are to separate yourself from other applicants. Avoidclichà ©sor descriptions that would be too common. For example, don’t just say you’re hardworking- explain what has driven you to become as diligent as you are and why you feel it is important. How to prepare:Rehearse answering this question. Try talking about your passions, hobbies, and interests. You can discuss what inspires you or what your friends like about you. Be specific. Again, you want to make yourself memorable. Question 2:Why Are You Interested In This College? Why they're asking this:This is an important question and one you should definitely prepare for, since colleges want to see that you’re taking the application process seriously and have a legitimate interest in attending the school. What they're looking for:Talk about your interest in a major or academic program, the cultural values of the school, or extracurricular activities that drew you to the college. Again, be thorough and specific.Don’t talk about prestige or rankings, and don't say you just want to go there because it’s close to home; none of this shows genuine interest in this specific college! How to prepare:To answer this question well, you'll need toconduct extensive college research before the interview.You should be able to cite specifics when answering this question. Follow the same advice as if you were writing the answer to this question for your application essay. Bart Everson/Flickr Question 3:Why Do You Want to Major in _____? If you've indicated that you want to major in a certain subject, you might be asked why you’re interested in that particular field. Why they're asking this:Colleges are interested in your academic goals and want to see that you’re academically inclined. What they're looking for:Talk about why a certain subject inspires you or why you're passionate about it. Don’t say that you’re pursuing a certain major to make a lot of money or have job security.That doesn’t demonstrate genuine academic interest; it just makes you seem shallow. How to prepare: Think deeply about why you want to pursue a specific major.Why do you find it fascinating? What experiences provoked your interest in the subject? How will the major enable you to reach your future professional goals? Question 4: What Are YourAcademic Strengths? Why they're asking this:In an effort to get to know you as a student, colleges are interested in getting your perspective on where you excel academically. What they're looking for:Don’t make this answer too short. Don’t just say, "I’m good at science." When discussing your academic strengths, explain how you’ve capitalized on your strengths.If you’re an excellent writer, for example, how have you used your writing skills to excel in school? How do you plan on continuing to use your strengths? How to prepare:Make sure you know your academic strengths. You should be able to explain how you recognized your strengths, how you're currently using them, and how you plan to use them in the future. Question 5:What Are Your Academic Weaknesses? How Have You Addressed Them? Whythey're asking this:Colleges want to admit good students, but they’re aware everyone has strengths and weaknesses. Colleges want to see that you have the persistence and work ethic to succeed despite your challenges. What they're looking for: Schools want students who can demonstrate theirability to confront and overcome challenges.Try revealing strategies or specific approaches you’ve taken to improve your academic weaknesses. You could also tell a specific story about how you managed to do well in a subject that was especially difficult for you. How to prepare: Be aware of your academic weaknesses and how you've addressed them. It's not good to say that you don't have any weaknesses. That's not very believable, and you'll come off as arrogant. Question 6:What Do You Plan to Contribute to This School? Why they're asking this:Colleges want to admit students who will make positive contributions to campus and academic life. Essentially, they’re looking for students who will make the school better. What they're looking for: In short, specifics.Don’t limit your answer to vaguepositive traits. Don’t just say you’ll contribute a good work ethic and a regard for others.Is there specific research you wish to pursue? Do you want to have a leadership position in an extracurricular activity? Are there specific community service projects you want to do?How will your presence on campus and in the classroom make a difference? How to prepare: Know the specific contributions you want to make to the school. Identify your college goals as well as the activities you want to pursue while you're in college. Question 7:What Do You Expect to Be Doing 10 Years From Now? Why they're asking this: Just to set the record straight, you don’t need to have your entire future figured out. Colleges understand that you probably won’t have everything decided and your plans are likely to change. What they do want isstudents with direction. What they're looking for: Collegeswant students who are motivated to achieve their goals.The bad, general answer is to only say you expect to have a fulfilling career and be making a positive impact on the world.What are some specific activities you’d like to do? How do you plan on impacting the world?You don’t have to limit your plans to professional goals. Do you want to take your mom on a vacation? Or have weekly gatherings with your best friends from high school? How to prepare: You can write down some detailed notes answering this question.Paint a picture of the life you want to have in 10 years. That picture should reveal your uniqueness. Question 8:What Would You Change About Your High School? Why they're asking this:With this question, colleges are looking for your ability to identify problems and get a better understanding of what you’re looking for in a school. By learning what you’d change, they get a chance to learn more about what matters to you. What they're looking for: Colleges want a thoughtful response. Be specific and respectful. Don’t say, "I’d get better teachers." Say that you’d allocate more resources to the music department so that more students can have the opportunity to learn how to play new instruments. Discuss how learning an instrument helped you, and describe the current state of the music department.Try to make it clear that you want to improve your school to benefit the personal and academic growth of allof its students. How to prepare: Think about the strengths and weaknesses of your high school. What are some specific problems it has? What are the consequences of those problems? What steps would you take to make improvements? Shouldn't other kids have the opportunity to rock out like this? (Joe Lewis/Flickr) Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. Question 9:Whom Do You Most Admire? Why they're asking this:From this question, colleges can get a sense of your values.If the person you most admire is Justin Bieber, for example, colleges might wonder about your priorities. What they're looking for:Don’t limit your answer just to naming the person. Why do you admire that person?For instance, many people say that the person they most admire is a parent. But what specifically has that parent done that you admire so much? In short, don’t forget the details. How to prepare: Think deeply about your response to this question. If the person you admire is somebody you know, practice by giving your answer to that person. You'll know you've answered the question well if you're rewarded with a hug or even a few tears from your audience. Question 10:What Is Your Favorite Book? Why they're asking this:This question is designed to help schools learn more about your interests. Colleges also probably want to make surethat you actually read books. What they're looking for:Don't limityour answer to the name of abook; think about why you like the book so much. How did it inspire you? Did a particular character resonate with you? Did you learn something from this book that influenced your opinions or behavior? Did this book help shape your perspective or values? How to prepare:Really think about books you've read that you connected with and why. I've also seen similar questions asking about a news article you recently read, so try to stay up to date with the news, too! Question 11:Why Do You Want to Go to College? Why they're asking this:For this question, schools are trying to understand why you’re motivated to pursue higher education. What they're looking for: Collegeswant to see you have clear goals you’re trying to accomplish by attending college.Obviously, they don’t want to hear that you want to go to college because your parents are making you or so you can attend wild parties. In your answer, emphasize how college will allow you to pursue your passions, aid in your personal development, and enable you to fulfill your future goals.Be specific. What are your passions and goals? How will college give you an opportunity to pursue these passions? What college activities will increase your awareness and facilitate your intellectual and emotional growth? How to prepare:For ideas, check out the pros in my article aboutif you should go to college. Steven Depolo/Flickr Question 12:What Do You Like to Do for Fun? Why they're asking this:This question is designed to get a better sense of your general interests and overall personality. What they're looking for:Your answer doesn’t only have to include activities that are academic. After all, you probably wouldn’t be believed if you said all you do for fun is read science textbooks and do math problems. If some of what you do for fun is intellectual, though, explain why you find these activities fun. Finally,try to avoid general answers such as "hang out with friends." How to prepare:You shouldn't have to prepare much for this question since I assume you already know what you like to do for fun. However, spend some time thinking about why you enjoy these activities. Question 13:What Is an Obstacle You've Faced and How Did You Get Through It? Why they're asking this:Colleges want to know if you've faced (and overcome) any significant challenges in your life. They also want to see that you’re persistent and willing to work hard in order to overcome these obstacles. What they're looking for:It’s fine if you haven’t had some awful, incredibly difficult obstacle in your life. Think of a time when you faced a problem that challenged you, and you put ina lot of effort to solve it.Your obstacle could be related to your home life, school, or an extracurricular activity. In your response, explain how the obstacle challenged you and emphasize what exactly you did to overcome it. How to prepare: Think of a significant challenge you've had in your life and how you dealt with it. What did you learn from the problem? How did you solve it? Did it change or influence the way you address similar problems? Question 14:What Makes You Unique? Why they're asking this:This question is essentially what all the other questions above are meant to determine. It's another general question that's often difficult to answer. We are all unique, but it can be hard to put into words exactly what separates you from other people. What they're looking for: Schools ask this question because theywant to get to know you better. You can discuss a trait or multiple traits you possess. Give examples and stories that demonstrate these qualities.Do you have any uncommon interests or goals? Is your background very unique? How to prepare:I recommend doing some serious brainstorming to address this question. Write out specific attributes and anecdotes you can share that demonstrate your uniqueness. When do you feel most comfortable? What makes you the proudest? What makes you special? How to Prepare for College InterviewQuestions For each of these questions, I recommend jotting down some notes so that you can remember key points or details.Don’t try to completely write out your answers and memorize them. The way you speak in an interview is supposed to appear conversational and not rehearsed. Also, if you try to memorize your answers and forget your script during the interview, you’ll end up looking confused and unsure of yourself. Practice your responses by having somebody ask you these questions and then answering them as if you were actually in the interview.Remember that you want to be as specific and detailed as possible.Learn to separate yourself from all the other applicants being interviewed. For some of these questions, it'll be helpful to review your personal statement.Your personal statement likely has some details or stories you can incorporate intosome of your answers. How Do You Answer Questions You Didn't Prepare For? Undoubtedly, the questions abovearen’t the only possible interview questions. Regardless of how much you prepare, you’ll almost definitely be asked a question you weren’t expecting. There’s no need to be too nervous, though. Just try to give honest, detailed answers. As long as you’re thoughtful and professional, you shouldn't worry too much about surprise questions. Also, you might be able to incorporate some details from the other questions you prepared for in your responses.For example, for any question related to academics, you could probably include details from your response to the question, "What are your academic strengths?" If you want to get more comfortable with the interview process, have a friend or parent ask you questions about yourself, and respond as if you were in the interview. This is an excellent way to prepare you for the real deal and will give you more confidence. What's Next? Still feeling nervous? Check out our guide tothe best tools to help you prepare for your interview, so you can feel confident going in. College interviews also giveyouthe opportunity to ask questions. Make sure you ask the right questions during your interview. If your goal is to get into one of the most selective colleges, check out our popular post on how to get into Harvard and the Ivy League. As you navigate the college selection process, it's important to knowhow to choose a college. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Multicultural Care Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Multicultural Care - Assignment Example In order to ensure that Ms. Lamas freely expressed her needs and better communicate with others, the counselor provided the client with permission to express herself without judging her. Additionally, the counselor validated the client’s feelings of abandonment, helplessness, and isolation. The cultural beliefs that the counselor took into account when conceptualizing Ms. Lamas’ case included the role of women and men, culture shock stages, bicultural identity as well as valuing the culture of others just the way she valued her culture. Ms. Lamas’ immigration experience and minority status exposed her to discrimination. For example, for being a Latino immigrant she was discriminated an aspect that led to depression and anxiety. Similarly, she felt guilt after migrating to US (Hays and Iwamasa, 2006). This was due to the way she was ignored and informed to do things as a woman Ms. Lamas expect her sons to take care of her due to the way she underwent great financial hardship while she provided for them. Due to lack of adequate finance, she was even unable to pay for their fees. In order to build a strong relationship with Ms. Lamas, the counselor ensured that the information regarding the counseling approach was provided to the client. Additionally, the counselor utilized self-disclosure where it was necessary. Rather than viewing the client symptoms as manifestations of pathology, the counselor also informed her that they were specialized coping behaviors. As a result, the client was able to express herself freely.