Creativity And Inspiration - 1152 Words

As a child, I was very creative. I loved to sing, dance, act, read, and paint. I would jump on the chance to do anything that allowed me to flex my creative muscle, except write. Stories of any kind intrigued me in particular. If I read a book, I would be so completely absorbed into the story line that I felt as if I were part of the story. I liked to repeat these stories to my friends and watch their faces as they lit up in wonder. When I wasn’t telling them a story, I was coming up with an elaborate adventure for us to act out. These acts of creativity and inspiration never seemed to make their way into my school work no matter how hard I tried. I was my most creative when I wasn’t told to be so. As soon as I had a deadline or was told to take my ideas and put them on paper I was utterly lost. My imagination would discover new inspiration all the time. I would find a muse out of anything and have an entire storyline running through my head, just itching to be put into words. Often I would have what I thought was a brilliant idea for a book, but as soon as my pen hit the paper, my brain would empty and all my great ideas would vanish. Sometimes I would choose to draw the cover first and spend all my energy on that, and then lose all inspiration as soon as I saw the blank screen in front of me. Even to this day I consider myself to be inflicted with the terrible curse of â€Å"White Page Syndrome†. While not fatal, this disease has often caused me other symptoms such as stressShow MoreRelatedCity Of Fountains : Creativity And Inspiration1669 Words   |  7 PagesCity of Fountains Creativity and Inspiration Many people living in Kansas City do not appreciate one of the things their home is known for, fountains. A member of our group originally thought of the nickname â€Å"City of Fountains†, so we took that idea and expanded it. Our exhibit would not only educate our community about a subject they never would have thought of, but would implement a curiosity about the history of this city for young minds to learn as well. We also thought that the exhibit shouldRead MoreThe Link Between Creativity and Bipolar Disorder, Annotated Bibliography854 Words   |  4 PagesTHE LINK BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND BIPOLAR DISORDER The Link Between Creativity and Bipolar Disorder Creativity is related with bipolar disorder is a popular assumption. The fact that many creative people, including Van Gogh, Ernest Hemingway, Leo Tolstoy, and Sylvia Plath, suffered from some kind of mental disorders triggers that idea. Psychologists have been interested in this contingent link for decades. In this paper, after defining both terms, I examine three articles that reportRead MoreIs Creativity A Creative Person?1738 Words   |  7 Pagesperson? Too late, you already are one. To even call somebody ‘a creative person’ is almost laughably redundant; creativity is the hallmark of our species. We have the senses for it; we have the curiosity for it; we have the opposable thumbs for it; we have the rhythm for it; we have the language and the excitement and the innate connection to divinity for it.† --Liz Gilbert Creativity has been on my mind for quite some time. When I think back to my childhood and when I look at my own children, IRead MoreTeacher as a Facilitator858 Words   |  4 Pageslearning† (TCL). Learning systems such as this can break the liveliness and students creativity in the classroom. Actually system teacher-centered learning (TCL) system must be balanced with student-centered learning (SCL). But it would be more effective if learning is more centered on student activeness in class, otherwise known as â€Å"Student centered learning†. Teachers only act as a facilitator, motivator and inspiration for students. Traditionally, a class is taught by a teacher mainly through lecturesRead More`` The Ecstasy Of Influence `` By Jonathan Allen Lethem996 Words   |  4 Pagesjust get new ideas out of the blue, we have to be inspired and influenced by those elements to create new art. Unlike Plato’s Ion, which states that God speaks through the artists, Lethem’s The Ecstasy of Influence: A plagiarism; projects that inspiration comes from the influence of our surroundings which is the key to creation. Jonathan Allen Lethem, a modern American essayists, writes the article in which he talks about how some artists see plagiarism as a wrong doing or stealing. Lethem disagreesRead MoreThe Creative Habit, Learn It And Use It For Life By Twyla Tharp1652 Words   |  7 PagesBook Review: The Creative Habit, Learn It and Use It for Life by Twyla Tharp By: Lama Iskandarani â€Å"Creativity is not a gift from the gods†, says Twyla Tharp. It is the result of effort and preparation, and it s within reach of anyone who puts in the willpower to nourish it. All it takes is the commitment to make creativity a habit, an essential part of your life. Twyla, the author of this book has been working in the creative field for over 35 years now, so it’s not surprising that she has accumulatedRead MoreWalt Disney Has A Vast Effect On My Personal Journey As An Artist1321 Words   |  6 Pagesand unique form of creativity. Walt was born on December 5th, 1901, in Chicago to an Irish immigrant family as the fourth son of Elias and Flora Call Disney (Thomas 23). As the Disney family grew in Chicago, Al Capone and the Mafia of the 1920’s soon made Chicago a dangerous place to live, so the Disney family moved to a farm in Marceline, Missouri. His father wanted to raise his family in a safe, all-American town. Walt’s family and hometown would bec ome his support and inspiration as he pursued hisRead MoreEducation Is Killing Students Creativity892 Words   |  4 PagesCreativity is undoubtedly the most essential element to social change in the daily life of people living in this era and society. Creativity as defined by Merriam-Webster’s dictionary is â€Å"the ability to make new things or think of new ideas,† ; creativity is in grave danger in today’s society, with the increased removal of the arts from public education and the increase of technology usage in children, kids are being programmed not to think, understand, and create for themselves. Social change isRead MorePersonal Innovation1631 Words   |  7 Pagesexamine the personal growth I have achieved during this class. It will examine the strength and weakness and how they related to innovation and leadership. Risk taking as well as creativity and flexibility will be examined. Defining a problem and or process in my personal life will be look ed at as well. Assess risk and creativity could be considered parts of being an innovator. We all take risk each day but to do it in a way that helps create new ideas is what set the innovators apart from the rest ofRead MoreCreativity Essay1031 Words   |  5 PagesIn your own experience, how has your creativity developed through using digital technologies to complete your coursework productions? Creativity has been defined in several different ways by various media theorists. In 1997, Bentley explained creativity as ‘The making of the new and rearranging of the old’. This is something that throughout the course of the project from the preliminary tasks to the main products I have been able to do. At the start of the course, we analysed the contents pages

The First World War (WWI) Essay - 854 Words

The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916, written by Alistair Horne, All Quiet on the Western Front, written by Erich Maria Remarque, and the many letters written by soldiers give several different and similar views of World War 1. The letters written by the soldiers talk about his or her individual problems and how they miss and love his or her families. In The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916, Alistair Horne writes day to day stories about the Battle of Verdun and of soldiers discussing his or her feelings at that point. Erich Maria Remarque writes in All Quiet on the Western Front about the relationships between the German soldiers. In The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916, Alistair Horne writes day to day stories of soldiers discussing his or her†¦show more content†¦As a source, the letters are both useful and not. The good thing about the letters is that they show how the soldiers felt about the war and how they were able to deal with the constant fighting and the conditions they were in. â€Å"It goes on from day to day: alternately awful marches and then a whole day’s inactive vegetating; heat and cold; too much to eat and then a long spell of hunger.† The downside is that they do not give an overview of the war or tell the reader what is happening everywhere else at all times. These letters best convey what the soldiers experienced and felt because instead of historians writing about what they thought the soldiers experienced, it was the actual soldiers expressing what they were going through during the war. In All Quiet on the Western Erich Maria Remarque writes about what German soldiers went through and about the relationships between one another. In his book, the narrator is a German soldier who tells the reader a very detailed story about his current days in World War 1. He writes dialogues between the troops and describes all of the other soldiers. â€Å"Close behind us were our friends: Tjaden, a skinny locksmith of our own age, the biggest eater of the company. He sits down to eat as thin as a grasshopper and gets up as big as a bug in the family way; Haie Westhus, of the same age, a peat-digger, who can easily hold a ration-loaf in his hand and say: Guess what I’ve got in my fist†¦Ã¢â‚¬  . â€Å"He glanced into the dixie. ‘The beans lookShow MoreRelatedWwi And Wwi : The First World War1704 Words   |  7 PagesQuestion 1 WWI vs WWII WWI is also known as the First World War, The Great War, The European War, and The War of the Nations. It was fought primarily in Europe from the year 1914 to the year 1918 and lasted 4 years. There were two warring groups, the Allied Powers composed of France, Britain, Russia, Japan, Italy, and in the later years, the U.S.; and the Central Powers composed of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey. It was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand ofRead MoreThe First World War ( Wwi )920 Words   |  4 PagesAlong history there have been persuasive speakers who through their voices have changed the world. They have mastered the art of persuasion and became leaders in order to inspire people to follow them and believe in them, to fight for their country because of patriotism and honor, and they unite masses for the best for the humanity and others for the worse. The First World War (WWI) left leaders that implementing strategic messages dedicated to the people made a paradigm shift by that time causingRead MoreThe First World War ( Wwi )1900 Words   |  8 PagesThe First World War (WWI) was fought from 1914 to 1918 and the Second World War (or WWII) was fought from 1939 to 1945. They were the largest military conflicts in human history. Both wars involved military alliances between different groups of countries. World War I was centered on Europe. The world warring nations were divided into two groups namely ‘The Central Powers’ and ‘The Allied Powers’. The central powers group consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. The Allied powersRead MoreEssay on The First World War (WWI)777 Words   |  4 Pages WORLD WAR ONE nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There has always been wars, and there will always be wars. Most wars leave a huge impact on the history of that nation, especialy if it involves more than one. In 1914, long-standing rivalries among European nations exploded into war. World War one, as it is now called, cost millions of lives. Such a war, has left a deep intentaion on the American history. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There were three very important causes of WorldRead More The First World War (WWI) Essay3406 Words   |  14 Pagesindependent and radically pan-Slavic nation bordering the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was behind the killing (they were right as it happened — the Serbian chief of staff had helped plan the crime). World Response Initial world opinion also believed Serbia was behind the assassination, and the initial world response condemned the act — a factor which reassured Austria that it could move to get revenge. But the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy never operated quickly, especially since Austria could do nothingRead MoreEssay about The First World War (WWI)978 Words   |  4 PagesMain Causes of World War I While we are always reminded of the negative effects of war, it is not everyday that we learn to understand the deeper factors of war that can turn a small conflict into an international outbreak. World War I was said to have been sparked by the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand but there are various deeper reasons that contributed to the commencement of the Great War. These factors include militarism, imperialism and the alliance systems. The first reason for theRead MoreEssay about The First World War (WWI)1087 Words   |  5 Pages World War I nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Nothing was a bigger disaster than what happened in World War I. This was such a bad war because everyone in the world has allies, and the allies are in oath to help there ally when things get rough or that country is going to war. What I am here to inform you about is how one of the major countries and why one of the biggest powers in the world played a big part in World War I. This country is no other than France, a countryRead MoreThe War I And World War II Essay1639 Words   |  7 PagesThe â€Å"Thirty Years War† World War I and World War II are the largest military conflicts in history. In 1919, Europe attempted to reconstruct the damage left by WWI. After WWI, with the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was left destroyed and destabilized, which eventually laid out the foundation for WWII. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles led to the aggression of Germany. The Treaty of Versailles was supposed to bring about peace, but Marshall Foch, generalissimo of the Allied Armies in FranceRead MoreEssay What Extent Is Germany to Blame for Ww11735 Words   |  7 Pagesblame for starting WWI? After a massive war, it easy to see why a lot people would point fingers at the country that lost the war. However, is this always correct; or do people jump to conclusions much too quickly? By doing this, do they also create a whole new kind of trouble for themselves to come in later years? Some may suggest that it is more productive to look at the events leading up to the war to determine who was at fault. The blame attached to World War One (WWI) is not exclusivelyRead MoreWomen’s Role in Wwi: Before and After1357 Words   |  6 PagesWorld War I made a colossal impact on all aspects of human life and almost everyone in Europe was affected by this impact to different degrees as a consequence. One group in particular, most often illustrated as a real turning point, largely in enfranchisement and employment, were women. The outbreak of WWI saw a number of unexpected changes take place within the common social strata. These changes were prompted by the fact that a new wave of social-thinking was taking shape and eventually affected

One Less Lonely Girl by Justin Bieber free essay sample

Personally, I hold a very neutral opinion towards teen pop sensation Justin Bieber. I simply am not interested in either being one of his fans or bashing him. Having said this, I hope readers will recognize that my opinion is not biased when I discuss my dislike of his song â€Å"One Less Lonely Girl†. It is not his singing abilities or anything about Justin as a person that bother me about this song, but the lyrics that he sings. My friend recently spoke about the message that he believed the lyrics send to young listeners. When a sixteen-year-old sings about how he will cause one girl not to be lonely anymore, he seems to imply that teenage girls aren’t okay on their own. I think many agree that it’s quite alright to be single at any age. Girls shouldn’t have to be in a relationship to be happy. We will write a custom essay sample on One Less Lonely Girl by Justin Bieber or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Who they date does not define them as a person. In the lyrics to â€Å"One Less Lonely Girl†, Justin repeats over and over how he will end a girl’s loneliness. When he says â€Å"one less† he seems to imply that many girls are lonely and unhappy because they don’t have boyfriends. Justin seems to be saying that the girl he is singing to in particular is lucky to be chosen by him because he will rescue only her out of the many other lonesome girls who would love to be with him. Others may have their own personal opinions on the meaning of this song, and I respect that, but I will stand firm on my opinion that this song sends a negative message to Justin’s many fans.

Resort and Spas

Introduction The resort and spa business has over the years developed into global phenomena as businesses acknowledge the unique needs of travellers and business people. The resort and spa industry is one of the industries that have experienced growth through implementation of different strategies and processes within the hotel industry.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Resort and Spas specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As a result, this essay is going to analyze two factors that are going to be analyzed in respect to implementation of strategies in the resort and spa industry. Strategic management is an important ingredient in the success of any organization since it involves planning for the purpose of achieving organizational goals. Strategic goals and initiatives are imperative in the development of the resort and spa industry especially in this competitive world of business. The issue of segmentation and cost d ifferentiation are going to be compared and contrasted as towards their effectiveness in the resort and spa business. Strategic management has been used in changing the business environment for any business in the world. As a result, this essay is going to analyze the effects of strategic management on the implementation of business processes. In particular, the essay is going to analyze the effects of strategic management in the resort and spa industry. We are going to analyze the key difference and aims of the two strategies of cost leadership/focus and segmentation in this industry. Analysis of the Resort and Spa Business The resort and spa business has evolved over the years from a traditional craft to a multi-billion industry in the world. The intense competition in the world has seen hotels groups launch services to reach out to their customers in this segment. As a result, different strategies have been deployed in ensuring that customers sample services from certain service providers (Bodeker, G. Cohen, M, 2012). In this case, strategic management has been used in roping in talent, cost techniques or services in a bid of ensuring differentiation in the industry as the resorts scout for more business. Strategic management has been used in achieving long term objectives of an organization in all fields including the resort and spa industry (Hing, N. Breen, H, 2009). Some of the strategic management techniques that have been used in the resort and spa business include conducting business analysis on the industry. For instance, we make use of SWOT and PESTEL analysis in the process of analysing industry strengths and weaknesses (Johnson, G., Whittington, R. Scholes, K, 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The development of some of the top notch resort and spa business had to conduct business analysis for their business to understand and come up with informative strategies. Through the use of SWOT analysis, resorts and spa industry players try to analyze the external opportunities and threats that exist in the market. Whilst, at the same time looking at the internal structures of an organization to determine the viability of undertaking organizational goals. Strategic management relies on the issues gathered through these SWOT and PESTEL analyses in relation to adopted organizational goals and objectives (Baum, 2006) The resort and spa industry is a unique industry where service and cost are the main drivers of growth and competition. As a result, this industry has undergone a lot of transformation to meet with the needs and expectations of the customers. The resort and spa industry grew in the past years when the element of health and fitness came into the hotel industry. As a result, many hotels started with offering spa treatments to its customers with the aim of attracting more customers (Cohen, M. Bodeker, G, 2012) . Moreover, some health and fitness centres introduced spa treatments that inculcated massages and treatments as a niche service within the hospitality industry. In the hotel industry and segment, resorts introduced spas as a means of increasing its service and products to its customers. However, many spas were launched all over the globe offering different kinds of treatments (O’Fallon, M. Rutherford, D, 2010). The concentration of spas in different locations all over the world led to the mushrooming of spas which offered poor services and at the same time were run by untrained staff. For instance, in India and Malaysia, the resort and spa industry in plagued with an influx of spas which were unregulated and offering poor services (Kaye, 2007). In some cases, brothels were disguised as spas and this did not help much in boosting the spa industry. Thus, some resorts and spas came up with purely unique premium wellness and treatment services under a segmentation strategy (Oon charoen, N. Ussahawanitchakit, P, 2008). Segmentation vs. Cost Leadership/Focus in Resort and Spa Industry In the resort and spa industry, several factors are used in the development of business and this includes two major factors. These factors are service and cost which drive the resort and spa industry in all global locations where hotels and other amenities are located. When to we analyse segmentation we have to look at the services offered within the resort and spa industry (Hill, C. Jones, G, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Resort and Spas specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More We also have to look into human resources/staff, training and support services needed to offer these services. While on the other hand we have to analyse cost within the resort and spa industry and how this factor affects the industry (Muphy, G. Dempsey, C, 2010). Cost factor implies that organizations have to come up with strat egies which ensure operating costs are lowered to ensure that optimum profit levels are achieved. Input costs are some of the major costs that affect production within an organization and therefore the resort and spa industry is also imparted with these costs. Spas and resort require specialised equipments and knowledge to operate unique spa services. In terms of investment in the resort and spa industry, resorts need to come up with products that are affordable for the customer (Lim, 2007). As a result, many resorts and spa offer their services as a complimentary to other services such as dining and accommodation. This is usually done by big hotel chains which offer these services within their health and fitness program. This is in contrast to organizations which offer spa services as the core strategy of their businesses since these organizations only invest in spa oriented services (D’Angelo, 2009). Undertaking strategic management based on cost leadership means an organiz ation will analyze its potential market and come up with services that cater for this market. Since the resort and spa market is faced with a lot of competition for customers, many organizations will fight for consumers based on cost leadership (Engel, 2011). Cost planning is an important factor within any organization and as a result, making use of the cost leadership strategy tends to emphasize on lowering costs or making use of economies of scale. Hotels conglomerates such as Hilton and Hyatt hotels have numerous resorts and spas backed up by a huge customer base. These hotels have the advantage of their huge market presence in the hospitality industry and therefore they make use of the cost focus and leadership strategy (Hoskisson, R., Hitt, M. Ireland, D, 2008). For instance, the Hyatt hotels offer premium services to customers and to attract the loyalty of these customers, they have a cost focus services within their spas (Roll, 2005). They make sure that spa and wellness ser vices are offered at low cost compared to their other services. This strategy has been mostly adopted across the resort and spa industry in several global locations. Resort and spas have resorted to becoming amenity localities where customers get their wellness or treatment services as additional amenities (Enz, 2009). Cost focus and leadership strategies are means of lowering costs while at the same time attracting a huge clientele base with purpose of making profits.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This strategy in most cases work for the short term since customer satisfaction is usually pegged on customer value (Pryce, 2008). Cost focus and leadership does not focus on the service being offered and as a result, this strategy is mostly undertaken where resort and spa services are offered as complementary or non-core services of a hospitality organization (Robbins, S., DeCenzo, D. Coulter, M, 2012). Segmentation is another key strategy factor in the hospitality industry sine this factor looks into the operation of a resort or spa based on its services. Segmentation differs from cost leadership or focus since it focuses on service provision or product differentiation based on a specific market segment. In most case, segmentation tends to offer products and services to a certain class of consumers (Raybould, M. Wilkins, H, 2006). In this case, resort and spas will offer services to customers who are keen on getting health and spa treatments exclusively. Most of the customers wh o are targeted through segmentation are those who want to be targeted for certain services that mainstream industry players do not offer (Erfurt-Cooper, P. Cooper, M, 2009). In terms of service offering, resort and spa have different strategies and thus some offer exclusive health, wellness and spa services as their key product offering. These spas give these exclusive services to their customers with emphasis being on quality service, value and expertise. The resort and spa industry requires the services of well trained professionals who have an understanding in the resort and spa industry (Ireland, R., Hoskisson R. Hitt, M, 2011). These professionals are well trained in offering different types of treatments and massage such as the traditional Urut massage, foot reflexology and wellness services. Resorts and spas which offer niche wellness and treatments services are different from other establishments which offer basic massage services (Wood, R. Brotherton, B, 2008). These cat egory of resort and spa have a different clientele in mind how have no concern for cost and are only interested in quality and value for the service provision. The main idea behind segmentation is differentiation in that these resorts and spas have an understanding of their competitors and want to offer unique services in the industry. Due to cut throat competition in the industry, it is imperative for every resort and spa to target specific customers for its organization (Horner, S. Swarbrook, J, 2005). The resort and spa industry is mainly oriented towards service as a key factor in many regions globally. As a result, the development on the spa industry in countries such as Malaysia suggests that service innovation plays a critical role in business success. The differentiation strategy which segments the market is different from the cost strategy since it aims at giving value against gaining quantity in relation to the cost strategy (Keith, 2009). Differentiation involves a lot o f techniques such as training and hiring health and wellness experts for the sake of maintaining quality services (O’Fallon, M. Rutherford, D, 2010). In some countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, there are standards and oversight authorities in the regulating the resort and spa industry. Due to the uniqueness and value of the segmentation strategy, it is necessary for premium cost to be attributed to this strategy. This is informed by the problems posed by the cost leadership strategy which is prone to poor services, competition and redundancy (Mill, 2008). Consequently, the differentiation strategy ensures service quality which has a direct influence on the customer satisfaction is ensured (Lee, T. Christine, P, 2010). Some of the resorts that practice this strategy include the Zoetry Wellness and Spa resorts located in different locations globally. It is indeed important to note that service quality is crucial to the success of an organization in the wellness and spa industry (Hoque, 2010). Thus, it is imperative for an organization to adopt differentiation strategies compared to cost leadership or focus based ones in the implementation of business goals and objectives. Conclusion The resort and spa industry has seen a lot changes since its inception not so long ago and thus these changes have been informed by different business strategies. The main focus of strategies in the resort and spa industry is cost and differentiation whereby these two factors are compared and contrasted. The cost leadership model has been adopted by many hospitality organizations with limited success since it does not serve the purpose of services required by the industry. When cost factors of low cost and high customer turnout are adopted service quality goes down and this affects greatly on customer value. This is unlike the differentiation strategy which focuses on the needs of the client and thus most of the time the customer is assured of good service and value fo r money. References Baum, T. (2006). Human Resource Management for Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure: An International Perspective. London: Thompson. Bodeker, G. Cohen, M. (2012). Understanding the Global Spa Industry. Manchester: Pelshiver, Bromberek, Z. (2012). Eco–resorts. Boston, MA: Oxford University Press US. Cohen, M. Bodeker, G. (2012). Understanding the Global SPA Industry. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. D’Angelo, J. (2009). Spa Business Strategies: A Plan for Success. Manchester: Routledge. Engel, J. (2011). Accelerating Corporate Innovation: Lessons from the Venture Capital Model. Research-Technology Management, 54(1), 17-20. Enz, C. (2009). Hospitality Strategic Management: Concept and Cases. Atlantic City, NJ: John Wiley Sons. Erfurt-Cooper, P. Cooper, M. (2009). Health and Wellness Tourism: Spas and Hot Springs. Washington DC: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Hill, C. Jones, G. (2009). Strategic Management Theory: An Integrated Approach. Boston, MA: Pear son Education. Hing, N. Breen, H. (2009). A Profile of Sydney Club Members: Implications for Strategic Management in a Competitive Environment. Australian Journal of Hospitality Management, 6(1), 76-79. Hoque, K. (2010). Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization, Concepts. Los Angeles, CA: Cengage Learning. Horner, S. Swarbrook, J. (2005). Leisure Marketing: A Global Perspective. London: Laybird Publishing. Hoskisson, R., Hitt, M. Ireland, D. (2008). Competing for Advantage. New York, NY: Raven Press. Ireland, R., Hoskisson R. Hitt, M. (2011). Understanding Business Strategy Concepts Plus: Concepts and Cases. Manchester City: Radcliffe Publishing. Johnson, G., Whittington, R. Scholes, K. (2011). Exploring Strategy: Text Cases. Chicago, IL: Prentice Hall. Kaye, C. (2007). Quality in Hospitality and Tourism Services. Australian Journal of Hospitality Management, 6(1), 113-114. Keith, J. (2009). Coming and Going in Hospitality: Personal Observations after a Decade A way. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sports and Tourism Education, 8(1), 89-94. Lee, T. Christine, P. (2010). The Relevance of Human Resource Management Theory on the Management Practices of Hospitality Providers on Phillip Island Victoria. Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 18(1), 109-111. Lim, S. (2007). Spa Living: Ideas, Tips Recipes for Revitalizing Body-Mind-Spirit. Boston, MA: Springer. Mill, R. (2008). Resorts: Management and Operation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Muphy, G. Dempsey, C. (2010). Management and Successes in the Hospitality Industry. San Francisco: SAGE. O’Fallon, M. Rutherford, D. (2010). Hotel Management and Operations. New York, NY: John Wiley Sons. Ooncharoen, N. Ussahawanitchakit, P. (2008). Building Organizational Excellence and Business Performance of Hotel Business in Thailand: Effects of Service Culture and Organizational Characteristic. International Journal of Business Research, 8(1), 22-26. Pryce, J. (2008). Knowledge Management in Hospitality and Tourism. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 11(1), 47-52. Raybould, M. Wilkins, H. (2006). Generic Skills for Hospitality Management: A Comparative Study of Management Expectations and Student Perceptions. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 13(1), 103-107. Robbins, S., DeCenzo, D. Coulter, M. (2012). Fundamentals of Management. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Roll, M. (2005). Asian Brand Strategy: How Asia Builds Strong Brands. New York, NY: Novinka. Wood, R. Brotherton, B. (2008). The SAGE Handbook of Hospitality Management. Sydney: SAGE This essay on Resort and Spas was written and submitted by user Caitlyn Bell to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

GANGS Essays (1641 words) - Crime, Criminology, Urban Decay

GANGS Essays (1641 words) - Crime, Criminology, Urban Decay GANGS OVERVIEW OF GANGS Originally the word gang had no negative connotation. In Old English, gang simply referred to a "number of people who went around together-a group." Today a gang can be defined in four basic ways: ? an organized group with a leader ? a unified group that usually remains together during peaceful times as well as times of conflict ? a group whose members show unity through clothing, language ? a group whose activities are criminal or threatening to the larger society. Gangs are one of the results of poverty, discrimination and urban deterioration. Some experts believe that young people, undereducated and without access to good jobs, become frustrated with their lives and join gangs as an alternative to boredom, hopelessness and devastating poverty. Studies have attempted to determine why gangs plague some communities but there has been no definitive answer. As a result, people working to solve gang problems have great difficulty. They find the situation overwhelming, and the violence continues. EARLY GANGS IN UNITED STATES HISTORY No groups completely fitting the above description of gangs existed in America until the early 1800s, but from the beginning of the European settlement in America there was gang-like activity, especially when class distinctions came into being. Gang members tended to be from the poorer classes and tended to be from the same race or ethnic background. They banded together for protection, recreation or financial gain. THE 20TH CENTURY GANGS In the early 1900s the U.S. economy worsened, the population grew at a rapid pace, and the gap between the rich and poor widened. All across the nation gangs appeared where poor, hopeless people lived. The dawning of the 20th century also brought with it a widespread use of firearms. 1920s By mid 1920s there were 1313 gangs in Chicago and more than 25,000 members. Gang warfare in Chicago was widespread and fighting took place along ethnic, cultural and racial lines. Some gangs had no noticeable cultural, ethnic or national ties and consisted mostly of whites. Chicano Gangs The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of Chicano (Mexican-American) gangs in Los Angeles. By the 1940s Chicano gangs established their place in Los Angeles-their zoot suits (a style of dress incorporating tapered pants, long wide- shoulder coats and broad-brimmed hats) had become a familiar sight. Fighting back against harassment of white residents and visiting soldiers during the so-called zoot suit riots in 1943 strengthened their cause. Post World War II After World War II gang membership: 1.became younger, 2.the nationality of the membership became largely non-white (though Italians, Irish and other white ethnic groups still made up a percentage), 3.drugs became a more publicized concern, 4.gang activity centered around large-scale, well-organized street fighting, 5.fire-arms were used more often, 6.the structure of organization became more rigid, 7.and society at large became concerned with gangs as a social problem and worked toward rehabilitation. Changes in Ethnic Populations The 1950s During the 1950s gang fighting rose to an all time high in cities like New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles and Cleveland. Gang members were usually in their teens. Codes of dress (black leather jackets were popular) and mannerisms were an important means of identification. Body language said a lot about the nature of the gang. When a gang decided to become a fighting, or "bopping" gang, its members immediately took on a different way of walking. A rhythmic gait, characterized by the forward movement of the head with each step. Terms for fighting were: bopping, rumbling, jitterbugging. Gang members used guns, knives, and homemade weapons. Most common drugs-alcohol, marijuana, heroin. New York gangs fought along racial lines-African-American, white, Puerto Rican. Usually they fought over girls or turf. Turf could be anything from a few blocks to an entire neighborhood. Gang members believed it was essential to protect the honor of their girlfr! iends. And in the late 1950, girl gangs, with strong ties to boy gangs, began to form. Revenge was required by an inflexible code of gang loyalty. It was from such incidents that gangs drew their sense of pride, of "being somebody." In order to combat the rise of violence, organizations like the New York City Youth Board sent social workers into the slums to form relationships with the gangs. In some

Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth

Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth Writing About History Is Writing Toward Truth By Mark Nichol The latest chapter in the depressing saga of Sarah Palin’s losing battle with chronic foot-in-mouth disease illustrates a point writers and editors should take careful notes about, because it’s going to be on the test. It has to do with history and repeating, but not with history repeating itself. It has to do with repeating accounts of historical events. Palin was in the news again last week because she recently made some confused statements about Paul Revere’s legendary ride, implying that one purpose of the mission was to warn the British military occupation that colonial militiamen were prepared to oppose their advance through Massachusetts to arrest rebel ringleaders and confiscate munitions. So, where’s the writing tip amid the historical histrionics? First, I readily concede that Palin is not an entirely reliable source of American history. But, in her defense, she actually got it partly right, and her detractors are also mistaken in some respects. Here’s the background: The legend of Paul Revere we all know from history class and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow is just that a legend. His ride is historical, but the details, as they’ve been handed down to us, are a bit muddled: Paul Revere was not a lone hero galloping off in the moonlight to rouse unprepared farmers and villagers to repel a surprise British advance. He was just a minor part of a long-prepared, well-organized network of planners, couriers, and militiamen who had rehearsed for the eventuality of the military maneuver, which they knew was inevitable. It was Longfellow’s poem that elevated a fairly trivial historical figure into an icon of the American Revolution. The most egregious issue in the latest Palin controversy is that one of her supporters attempted to revise Wikipedia’s Paul Revere page to deflect criticism of her. The intent was to support her by introducing a comment suggesting that it would have been odd for Revere to cry out, â€Å"The British are coming!† when those who responded to his call identified themselves by that term of nationality. A Wikipedia monitor rejected the change, but the truth is that it’s a valid point: Revere’s warning likely referred to â€Å"the regulars,† not â€Å"the British,† to announce the impending arrival of regular British army units. The British colonists in America were just that: British subjects. Many of them were disgruntled British subjects, but on the eve of the battles of Lexington and Concord, in April 1775, most of them remained loyal to the British crown and wanted not independence, but redress of grievances. Furthermore, British army scouts captured Revere before he accomplished his entire mission. It is at this point that he reportedly informed his captors of the stout defense they could expect if the army unit marched inland; one purpose of this challenge was evidently to try to divert them from the vicinity of the farmhouse where rebel leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock were in hiding. If this is true, then Sarah Palin’s comments are essentially accurate. On this point this post hinges: History is a work constantly in revision. Unfortunately, it is a target also of revisionism, and it is difficult to wade through legend and lore and romanticized heritage to reach the truth. And truth is asymptotic; you will never arrive at it. Walk halfway to a destination. Walk halfway again. And again. Repeat into infinity. You’ll never technically arrive, but you’ll get closer and it is incumbent on writers, when discussing history (or current events), to step ever forward toward the destination of truth. Resist complacent reliance on schoolbook history. Reject the partisan playbook. Read multiple sources of history and information originating from all along the ideological spectrum. Judge what you read and what you write by the standards of objectivity. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:70 "Home" Idioms and ExpressionsSocial vs. Societal35 Synonyms for Rain and Snow

Critically evaluate the view that Taylorism and Fordism have been Essay

Critically evaluate the view that Taylorism and Fordism have been replaced by post-Fordism as the means of organizing work in a capitalist society - Essay Example t and set forth new standards for employment organisation, proficiency, and machinery, allowing the system to cope with the continuously shifting market and highly technical atmosphere that is shaping the late twentieth century global economy. Nevertheless, philosophers themselves have criticised this modernisation. To them post-Fordism is just like Fordism. Neo-liberalism is just the same as liberalism and so goes for neo-Marxism and Marxism. According to Green (1997), postmodernism is to be perceived as the continuity of certain ideals current within it and not as a progression beyond it. True can be the same for Fordism and Post-Fordism. This essay will assess the current trends and models that have been adapted by the current society and realise if Fordism and/or Taylorism indeed has been replaced and if this replacement system offered any real changes in the management modules. Jessop (in Amin, 1994 p. 9) revealed the dynamism of Fordism and present four levels of analysis. First, Fordism is a labour process, an industrial paradigm that made use of assembly line technique for mass production, employing mass workers for mass consumption. Second, Fordism is a regime of accumulation. Owing to a steady form of macroeconomic growth, it entails a decent circle of growth owing mainly to mass production and a rise in income associated with productivity. A rise in productivity based on economies of balance. An increase in demand owing to increase in wages, rising profits secondary to full utilisation of productive competence leading to multiplication of investment in improved production equipment and performance. Thirdly, Fordism is a mode of regulation, linking to Taylorism and imploring the separation of ownership from control in large corporations, holding on to distinctive multi-divisional decentralised organisations run by one controlling body. Elevating it to a mode of socioeconomic regulation that takes into account pricing monopolisation, union recognition

Human Resource Strategy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Human Resource Strategy - Case Study Example This company is a worker co-op. It is one of the most exemplary companies when it comes to implementation of best practice strategies. This is because all the employees within the organisation are part owners of the organisation. The organisation focuses on addressing all their needs whether in the reward section or elsewhere. On the other hand, the employees pay back these efforts through commitment and best performance. Best practice has formed one of the organisation's key strengths. John Lewis partnership has made sure that training is part of its human resource and development efforts. This is because it realises the value of this best practice strategy. Pfeffer and Velga (1999) explain the importance of training and development of skills within any organisation. A company that takes its employees through training solidifies their contribution to the company. This is because such employees get equipped with the ability to make decisions in their work. On top of this, such employees have high levels of initiative and will try their utmost best to improve their organisational contribution. Skill development is a characteristic part of the John Lewis Partnership because employees who feel the need to improve their skills are given opportunities to do so through training schemes. Youndt et al (1996) emphasise that training is one of the most fundamental aspects of best... They claim that no amount of training will contribute towards organisational development if employees are not granted the permission to practice those acquired skills. This means that an organisation should try its best to grant work autonomy to its employees and to empower them through training. John Lewis has achieved this very well. In other retail companies, line managers are given minimal responsibilities. Most of them are expected to consult with higher authorities in order to decide on issues. However, the company under study has eliminated that problem by training those members of staff (so that they can have necessary skills) and then allowing them to make independent decisions. They believe that this is a form of investment into human capital since most of these employees feel valued. According to the Classical and Human relations approach, an organisation's structure and operation are affected by certain situational factors such as technology, size and environment. However best practice advocates like Burnes (2000) came up with a contingency theory. He believes that a reward system within any company can affect the way it operates or how it is structured. Pfeffer (1994) believes that best practice companies should have a structure that places staff members into groups. Those groups should be such that they have the ability to make their own decisions. Another aspect of best practise firms is that they ought to have reward systems that are compact in nature. This implies that there should be minimal differences between different members of staff so that most employees within the organisation operate in a relatively independent manner with the ability to make their own decisions. John Lewis' strategic capability in this aspect of structure is

Soft Drink Industry Essay Example for Free

Soft Drink Industry Essay A soft drink is a non-alcoholic beverage typically containing water often carbonated water and a flavoring agent. Many of these beverages are sweetened by the addition of sugar or high fructose They may also contain ingredients such as caffeine and fruit juice. They are called soft in contrast to hard drinksthat is, alcoholic beverages. Small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content generally must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Soft drinks are usually served chilled or at room temperature, are rarely heated, and generally do not include milk or other dairy beverages. Beverages that are typically not considered soft drinks include hot chocolate, hot tea, coffee, pure juice and milkshake. History of soft drinks. Soft drinks trace their history back to the mineral waters found in natural springs. Ancient societies believed that bathing in natural springs and/or drinking mineral waters could cure many diseases. Among the earliest soft drinks were sherbets developed by Arabic chemists and originally served in the medieval Near East. Dandelion burdock, a naturally carbonated drink made from fermented dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and burdock (Arctium lappa) roots, was first made in England in around 1265. The first marketed soft drinks (non-carbonated) in the Western world appeared in the 17th century. They were made from water and lemon juice sweetened with honey. In 1676, the Compagnie des Limonadiers of Paris was granted a monopoly for the sale of lemonade soft drinks. Vendors carried tanks of lemonade on their backs and dispensed cups of the soft drink to thirsty Parisians. In late 18th century, scientists made important progress in replicating naturally carbonated mineral waters. In 1767, Englishman Joseph Priestley first discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide to make carbonated water when he suspended a bowl of distilled water above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England. His invention of carbonated water, (also known as soda water), is the major and defining component of most soft drinks. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a refreshing drink.? 1881 The first cola-flavored beverage introduced. ? 1886 Dr. John S. Pemberton invented coca cola in Atlanta, Georgia. ? 1892 William Painter invented the crown bottle cap. ? 1898 Pepsi-Cola is invented by Caleb Bradham. ? Early 1920s The first automatic vending machines dispensed sodas into cups. ? 1957 The first aluminum cans used. ? 1959 The first diet cola sold. ? 1965 Soft drinks in cans dispensed from vending machines. ? 1970 Plastic bottles are used for soft drinks Coca cola and pepsi Coca-Cola was the 1st international soft drinks brand to enter India in early 1970’s. Re-entry of Coca-Cola in 1993 On the 26th of October 1993, Coca-Cola re-entered the Indian market having acquired some of the leading Indian soft drink brands from Parle, namely Thums-Up, Maaza, Limca, Goldspot Citra. These brands joined Coke’s portfolio of international brands i. e. Coca-Cola, Sprite, Fanta, Schweppes as Coca-Cola India took control of the top soft drink brands in India from the very beginning. From 1993 to 2003, company invested US $ 1 billion in India. Thebeginningofcolawar For the Cricket World Cup 1996, Pepsi was not the official sponsor of the tournament, Coke was. But Pepsi had a whole pool of best players roped in as brand ambassadors from the sub continent and abroad. The ad campaign of â€Å"Nothing Official About it† rocked the country and despite Coke being the official sponsor, it was Pepsi which hogged the publicity. In 1998, with the release of blockbuster movie â€Å"Kuch Kuch Hota Hai†, Pepsi took out another ace from its sleeve, featuring Shahrukh, Rani and Kajol in its ad. The punch line was â€Å"Yeh Dil Maange More† which was an iconic line and struck a chord amongst the people. Coca-Cola countered by spoofing the ad, using Sprite, to hilarious effect. Pepsi responded with a spoof of its own, starring Azhar and Jadeja hitting on the Coke line of â€Å"Eat Cricket, Sleep Cricket, Drink Only Coca Cola† with the punch line of â€Å"More More Cricket, More More Pepsi†. Coke again hit back, this time with Thumbs Up ad. They portrayed the cricketers as monkeys and ended the ad with â€Å"Don’t be a bunder (monkey) Taste the Thunder! † Situation turned ugly with Pepsi going to court and finally ended with Coke withdrawing the ad. The Cola wars went on full-fledged till 2003, when a pesticide controversy forced Coke and Pepsi to fight on the same side in so called â€Å"Indias New Cola Wars†. TheControversies Presence of Pesticides: In 2003, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) findings stirred the beverage industry in India. CSE claimed to find dangerous levels of pesticides in all the 57 samples of 11 soft drinks brands collected by the organization from 25 different manufacturing units of Coca-Cola and PepsiCo spread over 12 states. The study found a cocktail of three-five different pesticides in all the samples on an average 24 times higher than norms laid down by government-run Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS). Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and Kerala banned the sale of Colas in schools, colleges and government departments, and other states also took adversarial measures. The day after the CSE’s announcement, Coke and Pepsi came together in a rare show of solidarity at a joint press conference. The companies attacked the credibility of the CSE and their lab results, citing regular testing at independent laboratories proving the safety of their products. They promised to provide this data to the public, threatened legal action against the CSE while seeking a gag order, and contacted the United States Embassy in India for assistance. They roped in major film stars to explain their purity to public. Despite all these measures, sales dipped by as much as 80% in some regions. The soft drinks industry took over a year to get back on the growth track. Ground Water Crisis: Coca-Cola was recently accused of ground water depletion in many areas of the country. Coca-Cola’s bottling operations – which extract hundreds of millions of liters of water from the groundwater resource – have significantly worsened the water crisis as groundwater levels have dropped sharply since Coca-Cola started its operations. The company was also accused of indiscriminately dumping its toxic waste into the surrounding areas – polluting the water as well as the land. The Coke reiterated its commitment to trim down water usage and take steps towards environment sustainability and farmer’s welfare. However, activists retort that Coca Cola is in the business of water usage and wasting, creating a luxury product largely for the middle class. Amidst various allegations and controversies, the soft drinks industry in India, supported by its booming economy, strengthening middle class and low per capita consumption, is growing at a cruising pace. The focus has shifted from carbonated drinks to Fruit drinks, with both the companies launching Lemon drinks in 2009-10. In the next few years, the fruit juice category is likely to carry the growth flag forward as consumers become more health conscious.

Shift In Plagued Society :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many aspects of European life changed as a result of â€Å"the Black Death.† Not least among these changes was the shift that occurred among the economic standing of the medieval family and the ultimate â€Å"ushering out† of the feudalistic age. Prior to the plague, society in Europe remained largely feudalistic. Kings had their lords, lords their dukes, dukes their barons, and so on and so forth, with the majority, the peasants, sitting at the bottom virtually providing for all the nobility above them. Providing for the masters of the land was not easy for the peasants, taxes here and there kept there worth low, and their only assets to begin with were the little they had, â€Å"their land, family labor, and capital†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Hanawalt, p112)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Regrettably, for the nobles, things began to shift in the economic make up of Europe. As a noble, one was expected to maintain an army at call in return for land received from the king. Each successively lower noble had less land and a smaller army to maintain, but it remained that in order to be a noble one had many expenses to provide for. As the trade routes began to reopen after the plagues, people began to find the cities much more attractive than the farms that entailed a life of servitude to a lords.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prior to the plagues, the population of Europe as a whole had been largely stagnant, while there were famines rather frequently, they were merely a result of population overspill, and society as a whole did not topple. (Herlihy, p39) With the introduction of the plague to Europe, the city populations rapidly declined, thus making room in the cities for the farmers who eagerly entered the cities. Because they were, of course, not farming in the cities, people had to take up trades and so Europe began to flourish again economically. But because the people were living in the cities, they had little need to pay taxes to a lord, and thus emerged the middle class, a class that was able to make good money off of their trade, but, unlike the nobility, had no need to spend their money on armies and land maintenance, and could save for themselves. Furthermore, with the sharp drop in overall population peasants who continued to farm had a much smaller population to support, and as some peasants moved to the city, so did the farming peasants move to take over the land left over.

Andre Trocme

â€Å"These people came here for help and for shelter. I am their shepherd. A shepherd does not forsake his flock†¦ I do not know what a Jew is. I know only human beings. † Andre Trocme was born in St. Quentin, 1901, in the north of France to Huguenot parents. After seminary in Paris and graduate work at Union Theological Seminary in New York, he was ordained into the French Reformed Church and served for eight years among the coal miners and steel workers of Maubeuge and Sin-le-Noble, two small towns in the north of France. He preached nonviolence at a time when such views were unpopular in France. In 1934 Andre Trocme accepted a call to be pastor in the remote Huguenot village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon on the Plateau Vivarais-Lignon in South Central France. These parishioners were more sympathetic to his views on nonviolence. Magda Trocme (1901-1996) was born in Italy to an Italian father and a Russian mother. She graduated from the University of Florence with a degree in literature and earned further degrees in French. She and Andre Trocme met in the United States while she was attending the New York School of Social Work, and they were married in 1926. Together they had four children, Nelly, Jean-Pierre, Jacques, and Daniel. Andre Trocme was the spiritual leader of the Protestant congregation in the village of Le Chambon sur Lignon in South Eastern France. He urged his congregation in 1942 to give shelter to any Jew who asked for it. Village was soon filled with hundreds of Jews, both permanent and temporary depending on whether they were able to cross the border or not. Approx 5,000 Jews passed through Le Chambon. Vichy authorities knew what was happening for it was hard to hide. They demanded Trocme to stop but he refused and said â€Å"These people came here for help and for shelter. I am their shepherd, a Shepherd does not forsake his flock†¦ I do not know what a Jew is. I know only Human beings. † and for that he was arrested but shortly released. Andre then had to flee and hide from the Germans but the village kept his legacy and continued to shelter for the Jews. Magda Trocme was his wife and was involved in creating and maintaining this sanctuary made for the persecuted Jews. Part of Magda’s role was locating families who were willing to lodge Jewish refugees and prepared the town’s many residential schools for increased enrollment, but she was not the only one helping in this work. Community activists reported to the railroad station to receive the arriving refugees so they could then be housed by the town or taken to safer places. All these undertakings frustrated the regime’s anti-Jewish policies. Several days after august 15th, 1942, gendarmes moved into Le Chambon to â€Å"eliminate† the town of its â€Å"illegal† aliens and two weeks after that on August 30, rumors were around about an arrest warrant. Trocme urged the congregants to â€Å"do the will of God, not of men† and stressed the importance of the commandment in Deuteronomy 19:2-10 concerning the rights of the victimized and their need for shelter. There were no arrests that day, and several days later the gendarmes left the town, their mission failed. Approx 5,000 Jews passed through Le Chambon. Vichy authorities knew what was happening for it was hard to hide. They demanded Trocme to stop but he refused and said â€Å"These people came here for help and for shelter. I am their shepherd, a Shepherd does not forsake his flock†¦ I do not know what a Jew is. I know only Human beings. † In 1943, Trocme and two colleagues were arrested where he was held at a camp for 5 weeks. Commanders were trying to get him to sign an agreement that would mean following government orders, but refused and was later released but had to then flee from the Germans. Although he was gone the town still carried on without him, saving and hiding Jews lives. In the late 1940’s Andre and Magda Trocme traveled as European Secretaries for the International Fellowship of Reconciliation. On the 5th of January in 1971, Trocme and his wife, Magda were recognized for the Righteous among the nations along with 32 others from Le Chambon and in 1998 the town was given a diploma of honour for their humane gestures in the war.

Ap Bio Chapter 35 Notes

Chapter 35 Plant Structure, Growth, and Development Lecture Outline Overview: Plastic Plants? †¢ The fanwort, an aquatic weed, demonstrates the great developmental plasticity that is characteristic of plants. o The fanwort has feathery underwater leaves and large, flat, floating surface leaves. o Both leaf types have genetically identical cells, but the dissimilar environments in which they develop cause different genes involved in leaf formation to be turned on or off. In addition to plastic structural responses of individual plants to specific environments, plant species have adaptations in morphology that benefit them in their specific environments. o For example, cacti have leaves that are reduced to spines and a stem that serves as the primary site of photosynthesis. These adaptations minimize water loss in desert environments. †¢ The form of any plant is controlled by environmental and genetic factors. As a result, no two plants are identical. †¢ Angiosperms make up 90% of plant species and are at the base of the food web of nearly every terrestrial ecosystem. Most land animals, including humans, depend on angiosperms directly or indirectly for sustenance. Concept 35. 1 The plant body has a hierarchy of organs, tissues, and cells. †¢ Plants, like multicellular animals, have organs that are composed of different tissues, and tissues that are composed of different cell types. o A tissue is a group of cells with common structure and function. o An organ consists of several types of tissues that work together to carry out particular functions. Vascular plants have three basic organs: roots, stems, and leaves. The basic morphology of vascular plants reflects their evolutionary history as terrestrial organisms that inhabit and draw resources from two very different environments. o Vascular plants obtain water and minerals from the soil. o Vascular plants obtain CO2 and light above-ground. †¢ To obtain the resources they need, vascular p lants have evolved two systems: a subterranean root system and an aerial shoot system of stems and leaves. †¢ Each system depends on the other. o Lacking chloroplasts and living in the dark, roots would starve without photosynthates, the sugar and other carbohydrates imported from the shoot system. Conversely, the shoot system depends on water and minerals that roots absorb from the soil. Roots provide anchorage, absorption, and storage. †¢ A root is an organ that anchors a vascular plant in the soil, absorbs minerals and water, and stores sugars and starches. †¢ Most eudicots and gymnosperms have a taproot system, consisting of one large vertical root (the taproot) that develops from an embryonic root. †¢ The taproot produces many small lateral, or branch, roots. o In angiosperms, taproots often store sugars and starches that later support flowering and fruit production. Taproot systems generally penetrate deeply and are well adapted to deep soils. †¢ In se edless vascular plants and most monocots, including grasses, the embryonic root dies and does not form a main root. †¢ Instead, many small roots grow from the stem. Such roots are adventitious, a terms describing a plant organ that grows in an unusual location. †¢ Each small root forms its own lateral roots, giving rise to a fibrous root system—a mat of thin roots that spread out below the soil surface. o A fibrous root system is usually shallower than a taproot system and is best adapted to shallow soils with light rainfall. Grass roots are concentrated in the upper few centimeters of soil. As a result, grasses make excellent ground cover for preventing erosion. †¢ The root system helps anchor a plant. †¢ In both taproot and fibrous root systems, absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tips, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs enormously increase the surface area. o Root hairs are short-lived, tubular extensions of individual root epiderma l cells. †¢ Some plants have modified roots. Some arise from roots, while others are adventitious, arising above-ground from stems or even from leaves. Some modified roots provide additional support and anchorage. Others store water and nutrients or absorb oxygen from the air. Stems consist of alternating nodes and internodes. †¢ A stem is an organ consisting of alternating nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and internodes, the stem segments between nodes. †¢ At the angle formed by each leaf and the stem is an axillary bud with the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch. †¢ The growth of a young shoot is usually concentrated at its apex, where there is an apical bud, or terminal bud, with developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes. The presence of a terminal bud is partly responsible for inhibiting the growth of axillary buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance. o By concentrating resources on growing taller, apical dominan ce is an evolutionary adaptation that increases the plant’s exposure to light. †¢ In the absence of a terminal bud, the axillary buds break dormancy and give rise to lateral shoots complete with their own apical buds, leaves, and axillary buds. o This is why pruning trees and shrubs makes them bushier. †¢ Modified shoots with diverse functions have evolved in many plants. These shoots, which include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs, are often mistaken for roots. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of most plants. †¢ The leaf is the primary site of photosynthetic organs of most plants, although green stems are also photosynthetic. †¢ Although leaves vary extensively in form, they generally consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, the petiole, which joins the leaf to a stem node. o Grasses and other monocots lack petioles. In these plants, the base of the leaf forms a sheath that envelops the stem. Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement o f veins, the vascular tissue of leaves. †¢ Most monocots have parallel major veins that run the length of the blade, while eudicot leaves have a branched network of major veins. †¢ Plant taxonomists use floral morphology, leaf morphology, the branching pattern of veins, and the spatial arrangement of leaves to help identify and classify plants. o For example, simple leaves have a single, undivided blade, while compound leaves have several leaflets attached to the petiole. o Many large leaves are compound, which allows them to withstand strong winds without tearing. The structural adaptation of compound leaves also confines pathogens that invade the leaf to one leaflet. †¢ Most leaves are specialized for photosynthesis. †¢ Some plants have leaves that have become adapted for other functions, including tendrils that cling to supports, spines of cacti for defense, leaves modified for water storage, and brightly colored leaves that attract pollinators. Plant organs a re composed of three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. †¢ Each organ of a plant has three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Each system is continuous throughout the plant body. †¢ The dermal tissue system is the plant’s outer protective covering. †¢ In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system is a single layer of tightly packed cells, or epidermis. †¢ The epidermis of leaves and most stems secretes a waxy coating, the cuticle, which helps the aerial parts of the plant retain water. †¢ In woody plants, protective tissues called periderm replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots. †¢ The epidermis has other specialized characteristics consistent with the function of the organ it covers. For example, the root hairs are extensions of epidermal cells near the tips of the roots. o Trichomes, outgrowths of shoot epidermis, reduce water loss and reflect light. They protect against insects with sticky secret ions of insecticidal biochemicals. †¢ The vascular tissue system is involved in the transport of materials between roots and shoots. o Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots. o Phloem transports sugars, the products of photosynthesis, to the roots and sites of growth, such as developing leaves and fruits. †¢ The vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stele. In angiosperms, the root stele forms a solid central vascular cylinder, while the stele of stems and leaves consists of vascular bundles, separate strands of xylem and phloem. †¢ Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues with a variety of cell types. †¢ The ground tissue system is tissue that is neither dermal nor vascular. †¢ Ground tissue is divided into pith, internal to vascular tissue, and cortex, external to the vascular tissue. †¢ The functions of specialized cells within ground tissue include photosynthesis, storage, and support. Plant tissues ar e composed of three basic cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Plant cells are differentiated, with each type of plant cell possessing structural adaptations that make specific functions possible. o Cell differentiation may be evident within the protoplast, the cell contents exclusive of the cell wall. o Modifications of cell walls also play a role in plant cell differentiation. †¢ The major types of differentiated plant cells are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, water-conducting cells of the xylem, and sugar-conducting cells of the phloem. †¢ Mature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and flexible; most lack secondary walls. The protoplast of a parenchyma cell usually has a large central vacuole. †¢ Parenchyma cells are often depicted as â€Å"typical† plant cells because they generally are the least specialized, but there are exceptions. o For example, the highly specialized sieve-tube elements of the phloem ar e parenchyma cells. †¢ Parenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing various organic products. o For example, photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. o Some parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have colorless plastids that store starch. The fleshy tissue of most fruit is composed of parenchyma cells. †¢ Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types under special conditions, such as the repair and replacement of organs after injury to the plant. †¢ In the laboratory, it is possible to regenerate an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell. †¢ Collenchyma cells have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, although the walls are unevenly thick. †¢ Grouped into strands or cylinders, collenchyma cells help support young parts of the plant shoot. Young stems and petioles often have strands of collenchyma just below the epi dermis, providing support without restraining growth. †¢ Mature collenchyma cells are living and flexible and elongate with the stems and leaves they support. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells have thick secondary walls usually strengthened by lignin; they function as supporting elements of the plant. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. †¢ Unlike parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate. †¢ Sclerenchyma cells occur in plant regions that have stopped lengthening. Many sclerenchyma cells are dead at functional maturity, but they produce rigid secondary cells walls before the protoplast dies. o In parts of the plant that are still elongating, secondary walls are deposited in a spiral or ring pattern, enabling the cell wall to stretch like a spring as the cell grows. †¢ Two types of sclerenchyma cells, fibers and sclereids, are specialized entirely for support. o Fibers are long, slender, and tapered, and usually occur in group s. ? Fibers from hemp are used for making rope, and fibers from flax are woven into linen. o Sclereids are irregular in shape and shorter than fibers.They have very thick, lignified secondary walls. ? Sclereids impart hardness to nutshells and seed coats and the gritty texture to pear fruits. †¢ The water-conducting elements of xylem, the tracheids and vessel elements, are elongated cells that are dead at functional maturity. o The thickened cell walls remain as a nonliving conduit through which water can flow. †¢ Both tracheids and vessels have secondary walls interrupted by pits, thinner regions where only primary walls are present. †¢ Water moves from cell to cell mainly through pits. †¢ Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. Because their secondary walls are hardened with lignin, tracheids function in support as well as transport. †¢ Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, thinner-walled, and less tapered than tracheids. †¢ Vessel e lements are aligned end to end, forming long micropipes or xylem vessels. †¢ The ends are perforated, enabling water to flow freely. †¢ In the phloem, sucrose, other organic compounds, and some mineral ions move through tubes formed by chains of cells called sieve-tube elements. †¢ Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, although a sieve-tube element lacks a nucleus, ribosomes, and a distinct vacuole. The end walls, the sieve plates, have pores that facilitate the flow of fluid between cells. †¢ Each sieve-tube element has a nonconducting nucleated companion cell, which is connected to the sieve-tube element by numerous plasmodesmata. †¢ The nucleus and ribosomes of the companion cell serve both that cell and the adjacent sieve-tube element. †¢ In some plants, companion cells in leaves help load sugar into the sieve-tube elements, which transport the sugars to other parts of the plant. Concept 35. 2 Meristems generate cells for new organs. A major difference between plants and most animals is that plant growth is not limited to an embryonic or juvenile period. †¢ Most plants demonstrate indeterminate growth, growing as long as the plant lives. †¢ In contrast, most animals and certain plant organs, such as flowers, leaves, and thorns, undergo determinate growth, ceasing to grow after they reach a certain size. †¢ Indeterminate growth does not mean immortality. †¢ Annuals complete their life cycle—from germination to flowering to seed production to death—in a single year or less. o Many wildflowers and important food crops, such as cereals and legumes, are annuals. The lives of biennials span two years, with flowering and fruiting in the second year. o Radishes and carrots are biennials that are harvested after the first year. †¢ Plants such as trees, shrubs, and some grasses that live many years are perennials. o Some buffalo grass of the North American plains has been growing fo r 10,000 years from seeds that sprouted at the end of the last ice age. o Perennials do not usually die from old age but from an infection or some environmental trauma, such as fire or drought. †¢ A plant is capable of indeterminate growth because it has perpetually embryonic tissues called meristems. Apical meristems, located at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots, supply cells for the plant to grow in length. †¢ This elongation, primary growth, enables roots to extend through the soil and shoots to increase their exposure to light and carbon dioxide. †¢ In herbaceous plants, primary growth produces almost all of the plant body. †¢ Woody plants also show secondary growth, progressive thickening of roots and shoots where primary growth has ceased. †¢ Secondary growth is produced by lateral meristems, cylinders of dividing cells that extend along the lengths of roots and shoots. The vascular cambium adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xyle m and phloem. o The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with thicker, tougher periderm. †¢ The cells within meristems divide to generate additional cells, some of which remain in the meristematic region, while others differentiate and are incorporated into the tissues and organs of the growing plant. o Cells that remain as sources of new cells are called initials. o Cells that are displaced from the meristem, called derivatives, continue to divide until the cells they produce become specialized within developing tissues. At the tip of a winter twig of a deciduous tree is the dormant apical bud, enclosed by scales that protect its apical meristem. †¢ In the spring, the bud sheds its scales and begins a new spurt of primary growth. †¢ Along each growth segment, nodes are marked by scars left when leaves fell in the autumn. †¢ Above each leaf scar is either an axillary bud or a branch twig. †¢ Farther down the twig are whorls of scars left by the scales that en closed the apical bud during the preceding winter. †¢ Each spring and summer, as primary growth extends the shoot, secondary growth thickens the parts of the shoot that formed in earlier years. Concept 35. Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots. †¢ Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems. o Herbaceous plants and the youngest parts of woody plants represent the primary plant body. †¢ Apical meristems lengthen both roots and shoots. However, there are important differences in the primary growth of these two systems. †¢ The root tip is covered by a thimble-like root cap, which protects the meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth. o The cap also secretes a polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil around the growing root tip. Growth in length is concentrated just behind the root tip, where three zones of cells at successive stages of primary growth are located. †¢ These zones—the zone of cell division, the zone of elongation, and the zone of differentiation—grade together. †¢ The zone of cell division includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. o New root cells are produced in this region, including the cells of the root cap. †¢ The zone of cell division blends into the zone of elongation, where cells elongate, sometimes to more than ten times their original length. It is this elongation of cells that is mainly responsible for pushing the root tip, including the meristem, into the soil. o The meristem sustains growth by continuously adding cells to the youngest end of the zone of elongation. †¢ In the zone of differentiation, cells complete differentiation and become distinct cell types. †¢ The primary growth of roots produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. †¢ Water and minerals absorbed from the soil must enter the plant through the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering the root. Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of epidermal cells. †¢ Most roots have a vascular cylinder of xylem and phloem. o In eudicot roots, xylem radiates from the center like a star, with phloem developing between the arms of the xylem â€Å"star. † o In monocot roots, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of parenchyma surrounded by alternating xylem and phloem. The central region, called pit, is distinct from stem pith. †¢ The ground tissue of roots consists of parenchyma cells that fill the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and the epidermis. Cells within the ground tissue store sugars and starches, and their plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil. †¢ The innermost layer of the cortex, the endodermis, is a cylinder one cell thick that forms a selective barrier between the cortex and the vascular cylinder. †¢ Lateral roots may sprout from the outermost layer of the vascula r cylinder, the pericycle. o A lateral root pushes through the cortex and epidermis to emerge from the established root. o The vascular tissue of the lateral root is continuous with the vascular cylinder of the primary root. The apical meristem of a shoot is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip. †¢ Leaves arise as leaf primordia on the flanks of the apical meristem. †¢ Axillary buds develop from islands of meristematic cells left by apical meristems at the bases of the leaf primordia. †¢ Within a bud, leaf primordia are crowded close together because the internodes are very short. †¢ Most of the elongation of the shoot occurs by growth in length of slightly older internodes below the shoot apex. †¢ In some plants, including grasses, internodes continue to elongate all along the length of the shoot over a prolonged period. These plants have meristematic regions called intercalary meristems at the base of each leaf. o This explains why grass c ontinues to grow after being mowed. †¢ Unlike its central position in a root, vascular tissue runs the length of a stem in strands called vascular bundles. o Because the vascular system of the stem is near the surface, branches can develop with connections to the vascular tissue without having to originate from deep within the main shoot. †¢ In most eudicots, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, with pith inside and cortex outside the ring. The vascular bundles have xylem facing the pith and phloem facing the cortex. †¢ In the stems of most monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue rather than arranged in a ring. †¢ In both monocots and eudicots, the stem’s ground tissue is mostly parenchyma. †¢ Many stems are strengthened by collenchyma cells just beneath the epidermis. †¢ Sclerenchyma fiber cells also provide support. †¢ The epidermal barrier of leaves is interrupted only by stomata, tiny pores that regulate gas exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside a leaf. Each stomatal pore is flanked by two specialized epidermal cells called guard cells. o The term stoma can refer to either the stomatal pore or the entire stomatal complex, the pore and two guard cells. †¢ The stomata are also the major avenues of evaporative water loss from the plant—a process called transpiration. †¢ The ground tissue of the leaf, the mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. †¢ The mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. †¢ In many eudicots, a layer or more of columnar palisade mesophyll lies above spongy mesophyll. CO2 and oxygen circulate through the labyrinth of air spaces around the irregularly spaced cells of the spongy mesophyll. †¢ The air spaces are particularly large near stomata, where gas exchange with the outside air occurs. †¢ The vascular tissue of a leaf is cont inuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. †¢ Leaf traces, connections from vascular bundles in the stem, pass through petioles and into leaves. †¢ Vascular bundles in the leaves are called veins. Each vein is enclosed in a protective bundle sheath consisting of one or more layers of parenchyma. o Bundle-sheath cells are prominent in leaves that undergo C4 photosynthesis. Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. †¢ The xylem brings water and minerals to the photosynthetic tissues, and the phloem carries sugars and other organic products to other parts of the plant. †¢ The vascular infrastructure also functions to support and reinforce the shape of the leaf. Concept 35. 4 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants. †¢ The stems and roots of most eudicots increase in girth by secondary growth. †¢ The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and the cork cambiu m. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, increasing vascular flow and support for the shoot system. o The cork cambium produces a tough, thick covering consisting of wax-impregnated cells that protect the stem from water loss and invasion by insects, bacteria, and fungal spores. †¢ Primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different regions. o Elongation of the stem (primary growth) occurs at the apical meristem, but increases in diameter (secondary growth) occur farther down the stem. †¢ All gymnosperms and many eudicots have secondary growth, but it is rare in monocots. The vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells that may be one cell thick. †¢ The vascular cambium forms successive layers of secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior. †¢ The accumulation of this tissue over the years accounts for most of the increase in diameter of a woody plant. †¢ The vascular cambium d evelops from parenchyma cells that retain the capacity to divide. o In a typical woody stem, the vascular cambium forms as a continuous cylinder outside the cortex and primary xylem and inside the pith and primary phloem. In a typical woody root, the vascular cambium forms in segments between the primary phloem, the lobes of primary xylem, and the pericycle. †¢ Viewed in cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials. o As these cells divide, they increase the circumference of the vascular cambium, adding secondary xylem to the inside of the cambium and secondary phloem to the outside. †¢ Some initials are elongated, with long axes parallel to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce cells such as tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers of the xylem. They also produce sieve-tube elements, companion cells, parenchyma, and fibers of the phloem. †¢ Other initials are shorter, oriented perpendicular to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce vascular rays that transfer water and nutrients laterally within the woody stem, store sugars and starches, and aid in wound repair. †¢ As secondary growth continues over the years, layer upon layer of secondary xylem accumulate, producing the tissue we call wood. †¢ Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel elements (in angiosperms), and fibers. These cells, dead at functional maturity, have thick, lignified walls that give wood its hardness and strength. †¢ The first tracheid and vessel cells formed in the spring (early wood) have larger diameters and thinner walls than the cells produced later in the summer (late wood). o The structure of the early wood maximizes delivery of water to new, expanding leaves. o The thick-walled cells of later wood provide more physical support. †¢ In temperate regions, secondary growth in perennial plants ceases during the winter. †¢ This pattern of growth—cambium dormancy, early wood production, and late wood production—produces annual growth rings. Dendrochronology is the science of analyzing tree ring growth patterns. o Scientists can use ring patterns to identify climate change. †¢ As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem, known as heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals. o Heartwood contains resins and other compounds that protect the core of the tree from fungi and insects. †¢ The outer layers, known as sapwood, continue to transport xylem sap. †¢ Because each new layer of secondary xylem has a larger circumference, secondary growth enables the xylem to transport more sap each year, supplying more leaves. Only the youngest secondary phloem, closest to the vascular cambium, functions in sugar transport. †¢ The older secondary phloem dies and is sloughed off as part of the bark. †¢ Early in secondary growth, the epidermis produced by primary growth splits, dries, and falls off the stem or root. †¢ The e pidermis is replaced by two tissues produced by the first cork cambium, which arises in the outer cortex of stems and in the outer layer of the pericycle of roots. †¢ The first tissue, phelloderm, is a thin layer of parenchyma cells that forms to the interior of the cork cambium. The cork cambium also produces cork cells, which accumulate at the cambium’s exterior. †¢ Waxy material called suberin deposited in the cell walls of cork cells before they die acts as a barrier against water loss, physical damage, and pathogens. †¢ A cork cambium and the tissues it produces make up a layer of periderm, a protective layer that replaces the epidermis. †¢ Because cork cells have suberin and are compacted together, the periderm is impermeable to water and gases. †¢ In most plants, water and minerals are absorbed in the youngest parts of the roots. The older parts of the roots anchor the plant and transport water and solutes between roots and shoots. †¢ In a reas called lenticels, spaces develop between the cork cells of the periderm. o These areas within the trunk facilitate gas exchange with the outside air. †¢ The thickening of a stem or root splits the first cork cambium, which loses its meristematic activity and differentiates into cork cells. †¢ A new cork cambium forms to the inside, resulting in a new layer of periderm. †¢ As this process continues, older layers of periderm are sloughed off. o This produces the cracked, peeling bark of many tree trunks. Bark is all tissues external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem (produced by the vascular cambium), the most recent periderm, and all the outer layers of periderm. Concept 35. 5 Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body. †¢ The development of body form and organization is called morphogenesis. †¢ During plant development, a single cell, the zygote, gives rise to a multicellular plant of a particular form with funct ionally integrated cells, tissues, and organs. †¢ Each cell in the plant body contains the same genomes, but different patterns of gene expression cause cells to differentiate. The three developmental processes of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation act to transform the fertilized egg into a plant. Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants. †¢ Modern molecular techniques enable plant biologists to investigate how growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation give rise to a plant. †¢ Much of this research has focused on Arabidopsis thaliana, a small weed in the mustard family. o Thousands of these small plants can be cultivated in a few square meters of lab space. o With a generation time of about six weeks, Arabidopsis is an excellent model for genetic studies. Arabidopsis also has one of the smallest genomes of all known plants. †¢ Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in a six-year multinational proje ct. o More recently, rice and poplar trees have had their entire genomes sequenced. †¢ Arabidopsis has a total of about 26,000 genes, with fewer than 15,000 different types of genes. †¢ Now that the DNA sequence of Arabidopsis is known, plant biologists are working to identify the functions of every one of the plant’s genes. †¢ To aid in this effort, biologists are attempting to create mutants for every gene in the plant’s genome. Study of the functions of these genes has already expanded our understanding of plant development. †¢ By identifying each gene’s function, researchers aim to establish a blueprint for how plants develop, a major goal of systems biology. †¢ One day it may be possible to create a computer-generated â€Å"virtual plant† that will enable researchers to visualize which plant genes are activated in different parts of the plant during the entire course of development. Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion. †¢ Cell division in meristems increases the cell number, thereby increasing the potential for growth. However, it is cell expansion, especially cell elongation, that accounts for the increase in plant mass. †¢ The plane (direction) and symmetry of cell division are important determinants of plant form. o If the planes of division by a single cell and its descendents are parallel to the plane of the first cell division, a single file of cells will be produced. o If the planes of cell division of the descendent cells vary at random, an unorganized clump of cells will result. †¢ Although mitosis results in the equal allocation of chromosomes to daughter cells, cytokinesis may be asymmetrical. Asymmetrical cell division, in which one cell receives more cytoplasm than the other, is common in plant cells and usually signals a key developmental event. o For example, guard cells arise from an unspecialized epidermal cell through an asymmetrical cell division to fo rm a large unspecialized epidermal cell and a small guard cell â€Å"mother cell. † o Guard cells form when the small mother cell divides in a plane perpendicular to the first cell division. †¢ The plane in which a cell will divide is determined during late interphase. †¢ Microtubules in the outer cytoplasm become concentrated into a ring, the preprophase band. Although this ring disappears before metaphase, its â€Å"imprint† consists of an ordered array of actin microfilaments that remains after the microtubules disperse and signals the future plane of cell division. †¢ Cell expansion in animal cells is quite different from cell expansion in plant cells. o Animal cells grow by synthesizing a protein-rich cytoplasm, a metabolically expensive process. †¢ Growing plant cells add some protein-rich material to their cytoplasm, but water uptake by the large central vacuole accounts for 90% of a plant cell’s expansion. o This enables plants to gro w economically and rapidly. For example, bamboo shoots can elongate more than 2 m per week. †¢ Rapid expansion of shoots and roots increases plants’ exposure to light and soil, an important evolutionary adaptation to the immobile lifestyle of plants. †¢ In a growing plant cell, enzymes weaken cross-links in the cell wall, allowing it to expand as water diffuses into the vacuole by osmosis. †¢ The wall loosens when hydrogen ions secreted by the cell activate cell wall enzymes that break the cross-links between polymers in the wall. †¢ This reduces restraint on the turgid cell, which can take up more water and expand. Small vacuoles coalesce to form the cell’s central vacuole. †¢ The greatest expansion of a plant cell is usually oriented along the plant’s main axis. o The orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the innermost layers of the cell wall cause this differential growth, as the cell expands mainly perpendicular to the â€Å"grai n† of the microfibrils. o The orientation of microtubules in the cell’s outermost cytoplasm determines the orientation of cellulose microfibrils, the basic structural units of the cell wall. Arabidopsis mutants confirm the role of cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and growth. Studies of Arabidopsis mutants have confirmed the importance of cytoplasmic microtubules in both cell division and expansion. †¢ For example, fass mutants have unusually squat cells, which follow seemingly random planes of cell division. †¢ The roots and stems of fass mutants lack the ordered cell files and layers. †¢ Fass mutants develop into tiny adult plants with all their organs compressed longitudinally. †¢ The organization of microtubules in fass mutants is abnormal. o In interphase cells, the microtubules are randomly positioned. Preprophase bands do not form prior to mitosis. o Therefore, the cellulose microfibrils deposited in the cell wall cannot be arranged to determine the direction of the cell’s elongation. †¢ Cells with a fass mutation expand in all directions equally and divide in a haphazard arrangement, leading to stout stature and disorganized tissues. Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation. †¢ Morphogenesis organizes dividing and expanding cells into multicellular tissues and organs. †¢ The development of specific structures in specific locations is called pattern formation. Pattern formation depends to a large extent on positional information, signals that continuously indicate each cell’s location within an embryonic structure. †¢ Within a developing organ, each cell responds to positional information by differentiating into a particular cell type. †¢ Developmental biologists are accumulating evidence that gradients of specific molecules, generally proteins or mRNAs, provide positional information. o For example, a substance diffusing from a shoot’s apical meristem may â€Å"in form† the cells below of their distance from the shoot tip. A second chemical signal produced by the outermost cells may enable a cell to gauge its position relative to the radial axis of the developing organ. o Developmental biologists are testing the hypothesis that diffusible chemical signals provide plant cells with positional information. †¢ One type of positional information is polarity, the identification of the root end and shoot end along a well-developed axis. †¢ Axial polarity results in morphological and physiological differences. †¢ The unidirectional movement of the hormone auxin causes the emergence of adventitious roots and shoots from the appropriate ends of plant cuttings. The establishment of axial polarity is a critical step in plant morphogenesis. †¢ The first division of a plant zygote is normally asymmetrical and may initiate the polarization of the plant body into root and shoot ends. †¢ Once this polarity has been induced, it i s very difficult to reverse experimentally. o In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis, the first division is symmetrical, and the resulting ball-shaped plant lacks roots and leaves. †¢ Other genes that regulate pattern formation and morphogenesis include master regulatory genes called homeotic genes, which mediate many developmental events, such as organ initiation. For example, the protein product of the KNOTTED-1 homeotic gene is important for the development of leaf morphology, including the production of compound leaves. o Overexpression of this gene causes the compound leaves of a tomato plant to become â€Å"supercompound. † Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression. †¢ The diverse cell types of a plant, including guard cells, sieve-tube elements, and xylem vessel elements, all descend from a common cell, the zygote, and share the same DNA. The cloning of whole plants from single somatic cells demonstrates that the genome of a differentiated cell remains intact and can dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise to the diverse cell types of a plant. †¢ Cellular differentiation depends, to a large extent, on the control of gene expression. †¢ Cells with the same genomes follow different developmental pathways because they selectively express certain genes at specific times during differentiation. †¢ The activation or inactivation of specific genes involved in cellular differentiation depends on positional information—where a particular cell is located relative to other cells. For example, two distinct cell types in Arabidopsis, root hair cells and hairless epidermal cells, develop from immature epidermal cells. o Cells in contact with one underlying cortical cell differentiate into mature, hairless cells, while those in contact with two underlying cortical cells differentiate into root hair cells. o The homeotic gene GLABRA-2 is normally expressed only in hairless cells. If it is rendered dysfu nctional, every root epidermal cell develops a root hair. Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of a cell’s location in its developmental fate. In the process of shaping an organ, patterns of cell division and cell expansion affect the differentiation of cells by placing them in specific locations relative to other cells. †¢ Thus, positional information underlies all the processes of development: growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation. †¢ One approach to studying the relationship among these processes is clonal analysis, mapping the cell lineages (clones) derived from each cell in an apical meristem as organs develop. †¢ Researchers use mutations to distinguish a specific meristematic cell from the neighboring cells in the shoot tip. For example, a somatic mutation in an apical cell that prevents chlorophyll production produces an â€Å"albino† cell. o This cell and all its descendants appear as a linear file of colorless cells running down the long axis of the green shoot. †¢ To some extent, the developmental fates of cells in the shoot apex are predictable. o For example, clonal mapping has shown that almost all the cells derived from division of the outermost meristematic cells become part of the dermal tissue of leaves and stems. It is not possible to pinpoint precisely which cells of the meristem will give rise to specific tissues and organs, however, because random changes in rates and planes of cell division can reorganize the meristem. o For example, the outermost cells usually divide in a plane parallel to the surface of the shoot tip. o Occasionally, however, an outer cell divides in a plane perpendicular to this layer, placing one daughter cell beneath the surface, among cells derived from different lineages. †¢ In plants, a cell’s developmental fate is determined not by its membership in a particular lineage but by its final position in an emerging organ.Phase changes mark majo r shifts in development. †¢ In plants, developmental changes can occur within the shoot apical meristem, leading to a phase change in the organs produced. o One example of a phase change is the gradual transition from a juvenile phase to an adult phase. o In some plants, the result of the phase change is a change in the size and shape of leaves. o The leaves of juvenile and mature shoot regions differ in shape and other features. o Once the meristem has laid down the juvenile nodes and internodes, they retain that status even as the shoot continues to elongate and the meristem changes to the mature phase. If axillary buds give rise to branches, those shoots reflect the developmental phase of the main shoot region from which they arise. o Although the main shoot apex may have made the transition to the mature phase, the older region of the shoot continues to give rise to branches bearing juvenile leaves if that shoot region was laid down when the main apex was still in the juven ile phase. o A branch with juvenile leaves may actually be older than a branch with mature leaves. †¢ The juvenile-to-mature phase transition points to another difference in the development of plants versus animals. o In an animal, this ransition occurs at the level of the entire organism, as a larva develops into an adult animal. o In plants, phase changes during the history of apical meristems can result in juvenile and mature regions coexisting along the axis of each shoot. Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristem’s change from a vegetative to a floral phase. †¢ Another striking phase change in plant development is the transition from a vegetative shoot tip to a floral meristem. †¢ This transition is triggered by a combination of environmental cues, such as day length, and internal signals, such as hormones. Unlike vegetative growth, which is indeterminate, the production of a flower by an apical meristem stops primary growth of that shoo t. †¢ This transition is associated with switching â€Å"on† floral meristem identity genes. †¢ The protein products of these genes are transcription factors that help activate the genes required for the development of the floral meristem. †¢ Once a shoot meristem is induced to flower, positional information commits each primordium arising from the flanks of the shoot tip to develop into a specific flower organ—a sepal, petal, stamen, or carpel. Viewed from above, the floral organs develop in four concentric circles, or whorls. o Sepals form the fourth (outermost) whorl, petals form the third, stamens form the second, and carpels form the first (innermost) whorl. †¢ Organ identity genes, or plant homeotic genes, regulate positional information and function in the development of the floral pattern. o Mutations in these genes may lead to the substitution of one type of floral organ for the expected one. †¢ Organ identity genes code for transcript ion factors. †¢ Positional information determines which organ identity genes are expressed in which particular floral-organ primordium. In Arabidopsis, three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs. †¢ The ABC model of flower formation identifies how these genes direct the formation of four types of floral organs. †¢ The ABC model proposes that each class of organ identity genes is switched â€Å"on† in two specific whorls of the floral meristem. o A genes are switched on in the two outer whorls (sepals and petals), B genes are switched on in the two middle whorls (petals and stamens), and C genes are switched on in the two inner whorls (stamens and carpels). Sepals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only A genes are active. o Petals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which A and B genes are active. o Stamens arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which B and C genes are a ctive. o Carpels arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only C genes are active. †¢ The ABC model can account for the phenotypes of mutants lacking A, B, or C gene activity. o When gene A is missing, it inhibits C, and vice versa. o If either A or C is missing, the other takes its place.